^ 


LIBRARY 

OF    THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 
Cldis 


THE  PROBLEM  OF  METHOD, 


BY 

HOWARD   SANDISON, 

Department  of  Psychology,  Indiana  State  Normal  Schooi 
TERRE  HAUTE,  INDIANA. 


terre  haute,  ind. 

THE   inland   publishing    COMPANY. 

1904. 


uTb 


\0^\ 


c^^3 


COPYRIGHT,    1904, 

BY 

HOWARD   SANDISON. 


C.  W.  BROWN,   PRINTER  AND  BINDER. 
TERRE  HAUTE,  IND. 


PREFACE. 

In  this  volume  it  is  the  intention  to  consider  Method  as 
essentially  the  psychological  process  of  the  pupil  in  ob- 
taining possession  of  the  subject  -  matter.  Method  in  its 
general  aspect  is  identified,  not  with  the  psychological 
processes  in  their  diversit}"  and  as  they  appear  upon  the 
surface.  It  is  identified  with  the  fundamental  movement 
of  the  self,  w^hich,  upon  reflective  introspection,  reveals 
itvSelf  in  each  of  the  diverse  processes,  such  as  Sense  -  per- 
ception.  Memory,  etc. 

It  is  then  to  be  shown  that  this  fundamental  mental  move- 
ment specialized  by  the  activity  of  the  mind  upon  the  special 
subject-matter  of  an}^  given  branch  of  study  is  the  core  of 
the  method  of  that  subject. 

The  three  different  views  as  to  the  nature  of  Method 
and  their  relative  importance  are  to  be  given  brief  consider- 
ation, and  the  idea  of  special  method  is  to  be  illustrated 
with  the  subject  of  Language. 


1:^1243 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

Page. 
CHAPTER    I. 
THE   KvSSENTIAI.   IDEA   OF   METHOD.  6 

CHAPTER  n. 

THE   DIFFICUI.TY   OF   THE   PROBLEM.  8 

CHAPTER  III. 

THE  REM.   PROVINCE  OF   METHOD.  15 

Indi-stinctness  as  to  Scope 15 

Ground  of  the  Indistinctness 15 

Objective  Method 16 

Subjective  Method 19 

CHAPTER    IV. 

SPECIAI,  METHOD.  25 

CHAPTER  V. 

VARIOUS   USES   OF   THE   TERM    METHOD.  39 

General  Meanings 89 

Popular  Meanings 40 

Educational  Meanings 54 

Pedagogical  Meanings 84 

CHAPTER  VI. 

METHOD  IN  A  BRANCH  OF  STUDY.  120 

The  Essential  Features  of  Organization  in  a  Branch  of  Study  .  120-121 

Method  in  Composition 121 

Organizing  Principle 121 

The  vScope 121 

The  Divisions 121 


ii  TABLE  OF  Contents 

The  Relative  Importance  of  the  Divisions 122 

The  Psychological  Process  of  the  Learner 122-129 

The  Mental  Effects  Produced  by  Composition 129-130 

The  Devices  in  Composition 180 

The  Course  of  Study  in  Composition 180-151 

First  and  Second  Grades 180-185 

Third  Grade 186-188 

Fourth  Grade 188-142 

Fifth  Grade 148-148 

Sixth  Grade 148-151 

Special  Devices  or  Means 151-152 

In  Appendix 194-231 

CHAPTER  A'll. 

METHOD   IN   A    LKSSON..  158 

The  Essential  P^lements 168 

The  Principle  Underlying  the  lyesson— Self-determination  ...  154 

Its  Stages 154-155 

The  Objectifying  Process 155-157 

The  Subjectifying  Process 157-180 

The  Structure  of  a  Lesson 180-198 

APPENDIX. 

SERIES  OF  SENTENCES  EXPRESSING  THE  STAGES  IN 

VARIOUS   ACTIVITIES.  194 

Examples 194-210 

The  Process  in  Constructing  a  Series  of  Sentences  ....  210-214 
Auxiliary  Work 214-281 


CHAPTER  I. 


THE  ESSENTIAL  IDEA  OF  METHOD. 

Mr.  Andrewes  was  a  good  scholar,  and  (quite  another 
matter)  a  good  teacher. 

Mrs.  E WING — A  Flat  Iron  for  A  Farthing . 

It  may  be  said  that  the  subject  of  Method  is  just  as  capa- 
ble of  assuming  the  form  of  a  distinct  science  as  is  any  other, 
one  of  the  subjects  dealing  with  truth,  such  as  Physics, 
Chemistry,  Geology,  Botany,  Grammar,  History,  &c.,  for 
the  reason  that  the  sources  of  its  principles  and  its  central 
principle  are  perfectly  definite.  The  principles  arise,  on  the 
one  hand,  from  the  nature  of  the  subject  to  be  taught,  and  on 
the  other  hand,  from  the  nature  of  the  mind  to  be  educated. 
Method  itself  may  be  said  to  be  the  mental  activity  of  the 
learner,  specialized  by  activity  upon  the  object  being  studied. 

The  doctrine  of  Method  has  been  compactly  stated  as  fol- 
lows :  "The  fact  in  the  thing  ;  the  law  in  the  mind  ;  the 
method  in  both."^  Close  study  will  give  a  fuller  and  a  more 
definite  meaning  to  **the  fact  in  the  thing;  the  law  in  the 
mind,  and  the  method  in  both." 

"  The  fact  in  the  thing"  will  come  to  mean  some  fact  of 
a  subject  unified  by  having  one  of  its  attributes  emphasized, 
and  the  other  attributes  subordinated  to  this  emphasized  at- 
tribute by  the  interest  of  the  mind.  For  example,  ''the 
fact  in  the  thing,"  in  Geology,  may  be  a  mountain  range, 
with  its  attribute  of  growth  or  becoming  emphasized  by  the 


*  Wm.  a.  Jones,  first  President  of  the  Indiana  State  Normal  School  —  From  i8;o 
to  1879. 


6  The  Probi^em  of  Method. 

interest  of  the  mind.  All  of  the  other  attributes  of  the 
mountain,  thereby  become  subordinated  to  this  one  attri- 
bute of  growth,  and  are  considered  only  to  the  degree  in 
^hich  they  contribute  in  making  it  clear. 

' '  The  law  in  the  mind ' '  will  come  to  mean  the  great 
truth  that  the  mind,  in  considering  any  fact,  as  for  example 
the  mountain  range,  seizes  it  first  indistinctly,  that  is,  some- 
what in  the  form  of  blind  feeling  ;  that  second  as  thought,  it 
analyzes  the  object  under  consideration  into  its  definite  ele- 
ments, rather  isolating  each  element  as  if  it  were  complete 
in  itself  ;  that  third  as  thought,  concentrating  its  attention 
upon  the  isolated  attributes,  it  determines  which  is  thepre- 
dominant  one.  This  unifying  process  is  continued  by  con- 
sidering each  other  element  as  revealing  or  bearing  upon  this 
predominant  attribute  ^  thus  re-unifying  the  isolated  ele- 
ments. Finally,  through  repeated  consideration  of  the  ob- 
ject in  these  relations,  this  organized,  unified  v-iew.of.it 
becomes  habit,  and  thereby  sinks  into  feeling  again*  becom- 
ing thus  truly  the  self.  In  other  words,  * '  the  law  of  the 
mind ' '  will  come  to  mean  the  fundamental  three-fold  move- 
ment of  mind,  (movements  three  and  four  being  essentially 
one. )  This  movement  is  the  mind's  growth  in  freedom  from 
blind  feeling  through  definite  analysis  and  organized  re- 
unifying to  enlightened  feeling. 

' '  The  method  in  both ' '  will  come  to  mean  this  funda- 
mental movement  of  mind  specialized  by  having  as  its  sub- 
ject-matter or  content  some  fact  of  a  branch  of  study  with 
one  of  its  attributes  emphasized  by  the  mind's  interest,  and 
all  the  others  subordinated  through  this  interest  to  that 
attribute.  The  method  in  a  subject,  then,  is  a  mental  move- 
ment ;  it  is  not,  however,  a  mental  movement  considered  ab- 
stractly, that  is,  apart  from  any  content.  Its  content  is  the 
particular  object,  attribute,  or  relation  being  investigated. 
This  renders  the  mental  act  specific  or  particular. 


The  Problem  of  Method.  7 

If  the  foregoing  presents  the  correct  view,  a  method  can-v 
not  be  invented  ;  it  can  only  be  discovered.  It  can  never 
become  a  personal  thing  to  be  carried  about  with  one  and 
'  'applied' '  to  a  subject.  If  one  does  view  method  as  a  some-, 
thing  which  can  be  carried  about  and  applied  to  a  subject, 
it  is  likel}^  to  shut  out  the  light  of  that  subject  as  did  the 
Extinguisher  which  the  spirit  in  Dickens's  Christmas  Carol 
applied  to  the  spirit  of  Christmas. 


The  PROBI.KM  OF  Method. 


CHAPTER  11. 


THE  DIFFICULTY  OF  THE  PROBLEM. 

It  would  seem  then  that  the  subject  of  Method  presents  a 
very  real  problem.  This  is  much  at  variance  with  the  usual 
notion,  which  is  that  the  subject  of  Method  is  a  very  simple, 
superficial  branch  of  study  having  a  problem  easy  of  solu- 
tion. The  problem  of  Method  is,  however,  more  difiicult 
than  merely  gaining  a  knowledge  of  helpful  devices.  It  is 
both  difiicult  and  important  on  the  assumption  that  the  one 
who  is  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  method  in  the  subject  does 
not  clearly  possess  the  organizing  idea  or  principle  of  that 
branch  of  study  nor  the  close  organization  of  the  material 
of  the  branch  of  study  upon  the  organizing  principle. 

The  reasons  for  considering  the  problem  of  Method  to  be 
both  difficult  and  important  are  that  a  true  insight  into  the 
nature  of  method  in  any  given  subject,  involves : 

1.  In  addition  to  the  academic  view  of  the  subject 
gained  in  Common  School,  High  School,  Academy  or  College, 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  organizing  principle  of  the 
branch  of  study  to  be  taught,  and  a  close  organization  of  the 
subject  on  that  principle. 

2.  In  addition  to  the  academic  view  of  the  subject  of 
Psychology  obtained  in  High  School,  Academy  or  College,  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  central  principle  of  mental  life 
and  of  the  organization  of  mental  phenomena  upon  this 
principle. 

3.  A  knowledge  of  the  mental  process  necessary  in  gain- 
ing a  knowledge  of  the  subject. 


The  Problem  of  Method.  9 

4.  A  knowledge  of  the  following  important  truth  :  In 
themselves  facts  belong  to  no  subject.  They  belong  merely 
to  the  universe.  Each  fact  has  a  large  number  of  relations; 
a  large  number  of  attributes.  Considering  the  fact  in  itself, 
an3^  one  of  these  attributes  is  just  as  important  as  any  other. 

a.  The  first  process  in  determining  the  method  in 
any  branch  of  study  is  the  act  of  discovering  the  character- 
istic attribute  of  the  facts  of  the  subject.  What  this  attri- 
bute is,  has  been  determined,  to  an  extent  by  the  value  the 
race  has  attached  to  the  facts  of  the  subject.  In  order  to 
render  any  attribute  the  essential  one  of  the  fact,  the  mind 
must  withdraw  its  attention  temporarily  from  the  other  attri- 
butes and  center  it  upon  this  one.  Thereupon  the  mind's 
interest  centers  in  this  attribute,  and  the  purpose  arises  to 
consider  the  fact  with  all  of  its  other  attributes  in  relation 
to  this  attribute,  and  so  to  consider  all  similar  facts.  If  this 
is  general,  it  causes  the  subject  to  assume  definite  shape. 
Prior  to  the  emphasizing  of  this  attribute,  the  facts  of  the 
subject  were  known  to  the  mind  only  crudely ;  indefinitely. 
The  one  attribute,  however,  having  been  emphasized,  as  for 
example,  the  attribute  oi  groivth,  of  becomiyig,  in  the  moun- 
tain range,  the  subject  acquires  in  consequence,  a  core,  a 
unity,  an  organizing  principle.  It  now  for  the  first  time 
possesses  a  distinguishing  mark.  All  facts  viewed  with 
reference  to  this  attribute  now  belong  within  this  subject, 
even  if  they  may  be  at  other  times  facts  of  another  subject. 
They  cannot,  however,  be  facts  of  another  subject  at  the 
same  time  that  they  are  facts  of  this  subject.  They  cannot 
in  this  other  subject  possess  the  same  relations  and  the  same 
emphasis  of  relations  that  they  do  in  this. 

With  this  emphasized  attribute  in  mind  as  the  central 
truth  of  the  subject,  the  student  of  any  subject  is  able  to 
determine  definitely  : 

b.  The  scope  of  the  subject. 


10  Thk  Problem  of  Method. 

c.  The  divisions  and  sub-divisions  of  the  subject. 

d.  The  relative  importance  of  the  divisions,  sub- 
divisions and  separate  facts. 

e.  A  knowledge  of  the  successive  movements  or  steps 
that  would  be  taken  by  the  mind  of  the  learner  in  mastering 
any  one  of  the  facts  of  the  subject  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring 
into  prominence  the  attribute  around  which  the  mind's  inter- 
est centers.  Method,  essentially,  is  just  this  act  of  the 
pupil's  mind  rendering  subjective  a  particular  fact  of  a  given 
subject.     These  movements  may  be  viewed  in  two  ways  : 

(1).  The  steps  in  any  given  case  may  be  seen  to 
be  what  has  been  termed  above,  the  fundamental  movement 
of  mind  ;  i.  e. ,  grasping  a  thing  indefinitely;  analyizing  it 
into  definite  elements;  reunifying  these  isolated  elements  in- 
to an  organized,  differentiated  unity;  repeating  this  thought 
of  the.- organized  unity  in  such  a  large  variety  of  forms  that 
through  habit  it  is  at  last  transmuted  into  enlightened  feel- 
ing, thereby  becoming  a  part  of  the  individual  himself. 

It  is  seen  that  the  mastery  of  this  view  of  the  movement 
necessarily  belongs  to  the  systematic  study  of  Psychology 
itself.  This  movement  is,  in  truth,  the  organizing  idea  in 
educational  Psychology.  Hence  it  indicates  the  true  scope 
of  the  subject,  its  divisions,  the  relative  importance  of  the 
divisions,  etc. 

(2).  The  other  view  of  the  steps  to  be  taken  by 
the  mind  of  the  learner,  is  what  may  be  termed  a  special 
view.  The  special  steps  are  this  fourfold  fundamental  move- 
ment of  mind  specialized  by  the  particular  subject-matter  of 
the  branch  of  study.  For  example,  the  special  steps  in 
studying  the  mountain  range  as  a  fact  in  Geology,  are : 

(a).  The  indistinct,  indefinite  comprehension 
of  the  mountain  range  as  to  its  growth,  as  to  its  becoming. 
This  may  involve  sense-perception,  memory,  imagination, 
&c. 


The  PROBI.EM  OF  Method.  11 

(b).  Definite  analysis  of  the  facts  or  elements 
involved  in  the  mountain  range  viewed  as  to  its  process  of 
becoming.  This  involves  the  isolation  of  the  prominent 
attribute — the  process  of  becoming — the  isolation  of  all 
other  attributes,  as  locality,  length,  direction,  height,  pres- 
ent condition  of  structure,  &c.,  and  the  distinct  considera- 
tion of  each.  This  may  involve  memory,  abstraction,  com- 
parison, imagination,  &c. 

(c).  Re-unifying,  i.  e.,  considering  each  of  the 
isolated  elements  as  to  its  bearing  on  the  central  attribute — 
the  process  of  becoming. 

(d).  Such  varied  and  repeated  thinking  of  this 
organized  unity  as  will  result  in  habit ;  that  is,  in  trans- 
muting this  thought  of  the  organized  unity  into  feeling  — 
not,  however,  into  blind  feeling,  since  the  feeling  here  indi- 
cated arises  after  definite  analysis  and  definite  re-unifying. 
The  mental  movement  here  indicated  under  (2)  is  the 
core  of  the  problem  of  Method.  Method  in  Geology  is  this 
specialized  mental  process  required  in  order  to  understand 
clearly  the  mountain  range  in  its  process  of  becoming.  In 
order  to  see  clearly  what  the  method  is,  one  must  be  able  to 
see  it  first  as  the  general  movement.  He  is  then  to  compre- 
hend it  as  specialized  through  the  definite  subject-matter. 
As  soon  as  the  general  movement  has  become  specialized, 
one  is  able  to  see  the  different  activities  of  mind  involved  in 
each  of  the  four  general  steps.  Thus  he  is  able  to  see 
whether  Geology  involves  observation,  memory,  induction, 

&c. 

f .     A  knowledge  of  the  mental  effect  produced  in  the 

learner.  While  this  eitect  may  be  prominentl}^  intellectual, 
emotional,  or  volitional,  it  is  always  all  three  ;  that  is,  the 
whole  mental .  being  is  affected  by  the  truth  studied  and  by 
the  process  of  studying  it.  One  who  understands  the  pro- 
blem of  Method  must  be  able  to  set  clearly  before  himself 


12  The  Probi^em  of  Method. 

the  effect  to  be  produced  upon  the  mind  of  the  learner  by 
the  investigation  of  an}^  given  subject.  The  first  effect  to 
be  noted  is  the  habit  resulting  from  acting  the  distinctive 
act  of  the  subject,  as  the  grammar  act,  the  geography  act. 
g.  A  knowledge  of  the  means,  that  is,  of  the  outside 
instrumentalities,  or  devices.  These  are  of  two  kinds — gen- 
eral and  special.  The  general  is  the  Course  of  Study.  The 
special  includes  laboratories,  and  all  modes  of  procedure  in 
laboratory  work;  field  work;  questions;  illustrations;  work 
with  maps;  written  examinations;  discussion  of  examination 
papers,  lectures,  &c.  The  things  referred  to  under  "g" 
constitute  that  which  is  usually  in  mind  when  one  speaks  of 
Method.  It  is,  however,  only  one  feature  of  Method,  and 
its  external  feature. 

In  order  to  understand  this  last,  one  must  not  only  be 
aware  of  the  external  means  themselves,  appropriate  to  the 
subject;  but  he  must  also  see  the  reasons  underlying  their 
use,  and  the  order  of  their  use.  It  will  be  noted  that  "4" 
of  the  thoughts  indicated  on  the  ninth  page  ma}^  be  regarded 
as  a  feature  of  "1"  on  the  eighth  page.  It  therefore  appears 
that  there  are  two  ways  of  dealing  w'ith  the  subject  in 
order  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  it.  In  the  first  mode  the 
learner,  having,  even  in  the  beginning,  a  vSomewhat  crude 
view  as  to  the  facts  that  belong  under  the  subject,  enters  at 
once  upon  an  examination  of  the  facts.  Gradually  he  be- 
comes aware  of  their  various  relations,  and  on  the  basis  of 
these  relations  groups  them  into  divisions  and  sub-divisions. 
He  thereby  gains  a  knowledge  of  the  relations  within  the 
subject,  and  of  the  general  relations  of  this  subject  to  other 
subjects.  The  second  mode  of  dealing  with  the  subject  in- 
cludes all  of  these  indicated  under  the  first,  and  in  addition, 
the  more  scientific  process  of  seeking  first  the  organizing 
principle  of  the  subject;  deriving  from  this  a  knowledge  of 
the  scope  of  the  subject;  of  the  divisions  and  sub-divisions. 


The  Problem  of  Method.  13 

and  of  the  relative  emphasis  of  the  divisions,  sub-divisions, 
and  facts.  This  central  truth  arises  from  the  mind's  (the 
race's)  interest  or  purpose.  The  second,  and  higher  knowl- 
ledge  of  the  subject. thus  indicated,  implies  that  the  teacher 
and  the  learner  knows  : 

a.  That  the  subject  acquires  its  core  —  its  central 
truth  —  from  the  mind's  interest  in  a  given  attribute. 

b.  What  this  given  attribute  is. 

c.  The  mental  process  in  making  any  given  attri- 
bute the  predominant  one  of  the  subject. 

The  study  of  the  subject  of  Psychology  has  the  same  two 
modes  of  examination.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  second  of 
the  two  thoughts  indicated  in  "1"  on  page  8  —  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  branch  of  study,  and  the  second  thought  under 
"2"  of  the  same  page  —  the  knowledge  of  Psycholog}^  are 
not  really  elements  in  Method,  strictly  considered.  They 
are,  however,  aspects  of  pedagogical  work.  In ''e"  on  page 
10,  Method  itself  is  found.  It  will  also  be  evident  that  "e'* 
and  "f" — the  mental  steps  in  mastering  any  given  fact  in  a 
subject,  and  the  effect  to  be  produced  upon  the  mind  of  the 
learner,  constitute  the  basis  for  "g"  or  the  seventh  point — 
the  outward  means;  the  devices.  The  question  now  arises 
as  to  the  requisites  in  order  to  be  able  to  make  substantial 
progress  in  discovering  the  method  in  any  given  branch  of 
study.  One  often  speaks  of  a  specialistin  a  branch  of  study 
as  having  these  requisites. 

He  has  very  important  qualifications.  He  does  not,  how- 
ever, seem  to  possess  full  qualifications.  Sometimes  one 
speaks  of  the  specialist  in  Psychology  who  has  only  a  gene- 
ral understanding  of  the  nature  of  the  branch  of  study  to  be 
taught,  as  the  one  fitted  to  discover  the  method  in  that  sub- 
ject. He  does  possess  a  very  important  qualification,  but  as 
previously  indicated,  method  cannot  be  "invented;"  it  is  al- 
already  there.     It  is  to  be  discovered  ;  it  cannot  be  discov- 


14  The  Probi^em  of  Method. 

ered  in  isolation  from  a  sytematic  knowledge  of  the  subject. 
One  cannot  evolve  the  method  in  Geolog\^  out  of  inner  con- 
sciousness, and  then  in  the  usual  terms,  "apply  it"  to  Geol- 
ogy. It  seems  incredible  that  any  one  has  ever  entertained 
the  notion  that  the  method  of  a  branch  of  study  can  be  dis- 
covered apart  from  and  in  ignorance  of  the  branch  of  study.. 
It  seems  equally  incredible,  that  it  can  be  discovered  in 
ignorance  of  the  nature  of  the  law  of  mind,  of  the  conse- 
quent stages  of  mental  development,  &c.,  even  by  one  w^ho 
is  an  expert  in  the  branch  of  study.  A  branch  of  study, 
as  Physics  or  Chemistry,  does  not  consist  merely  of  facts  ;  it 
consists  of  known  facts  organized  on  a  special  interest  or  pur- 
pose of  the  human  mind.  The  attribute  of  these  facts  em- 
phasized by  this  special  interest  or  purpose  of  the  human 
mind  becomes,  therefore,  the  distinguishing  mark  of  the 
facts  and  the  key  to  its  method. 

The  one  best  fitted,  then,  to  discover  the  method  in  Phy- 
sics, Chemistry  or  any  other  branch  of  stud\ ,  is  the  one 
who  has  become  a  specialist  in  both  the  branch  of  study  it- 
self and  Psychology.  This  w^ouid  give  the  ideal  conditions. 
On  account  of  the  comprehensiveness  of  such  conditions,  it 
is  very  difficult  to  possess  them.  The  aim  is  to  approxi- 
mate these  ideal  conditions  more  and  more  each  year.  The 
problem  of  Method,  can,  however,  be  solved  to  a  helpful 
degree,  even  by  those  who  know  of  the  branch  of  study 
only  enough  to  secure  a  good  grade  of  license  to  teach  ;  and 
who  know  of  mind  only  that  which  would  come  from  close 
observation  of  their  own  mental  activities,  from  close  obser- 
vation of  those  of  children  as  indicated  by  their  words  and 
outward  actions,  and  from  a  brief  course  in  systematic  study 
of  Psychology.  It  can  be  solved  to  a  highly  helpful  de- 
gree by  those  students  who  have  done  all  this,  and  who  in 
addition  have  given  a  year  or  more  to  a  systematic  study  of 
the  branches  of  knowledge  and  of  Psychology  from  the 
pedagogical  attitude. 


The  Problem  of  Method.  15 


CHAPTER  III. 


THE  REAL  PROVINCE  OF  METHOD. 

INDISTINCTNESS  AS  TO  SCOPE. 

In  this  case  the  mere  expression  —  the  Real  Province  of 
Method  — is  itself  significant.  It  implies  that  the  boundary 
line  between  the  realm  of  method  and  that  of  something  else 
is  indistinct.  That  something  else  may  be  scholarship ;  it 
may  be  the  reahn  of  means ;  of  external  appliances ;  of  de- 
vices. In  the  title  there  is  the  implication  that  method  is, 
or  has  been,  occupying  an  unreal,  fictitious  province.  This 
fictitiousness  may  arise  from  the  fact  that  scholarship  is 
wanting,  and  that  the  attempt  to  determine  a  set  of  princi- 
ples to  control  in  that  given  realm,  in  which  scholarship  is 
wanting,  results  in  an  unreal  province  for  method.  Outer 
doing,  devices,  external  means,  with  little  or  no  attention 
to  the  truths  that  underlie  them,  may  be  pres.sed  to  the  front 
as  method.  This  would  constitute  a  fictitious  province  for 
method.  Scholarship  alone,  may  be  exalted  as  if  it  were  all 
in  all.  In  that  case  method  would  not  possess  its  real  pro- 
vince. It  means  that  an  indistinctness  prevails  as  to  the 
true  realm  of  method.  To  remove  this  indistinctness  is  the 
problem. 

GROUND  OF  THE  INDISTINCTNESS. 

It  is  but  natural  that  a  certain  indefiniteness,  that  a  given 
degree  of  indistinctness  should  prevail  as  to  the  real  province 
of  method,  in  distinction  from  that  of  both  scholarship  and 
external  means.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  activity  is  the 
one   thing  to  be  found  in  the  universe.      Sometimes   one 


16  The  Problem  of  Method. 

speaks  of  a  thing  and  of  activity  upon  it.  But  what  is  the 
thing  itself  other  than  activity  ?  A  block  of  compact  steel 
seems  perfectly  motionless,  yet  every  atom  in  it  has  a  space 
of  its  own,  and  exists  in  a  continual  dance.  Thus  it  is  with 
every  atom  in  the  hardest  granite.  It  seems,  therefore,  that 
only  activity  is.  This  activity  rises  from  its  most  passive 
form  as  space,  until  it  becomes  an  activity  that  can  become 
aware  of  itself,  as  in  consciousness.  Scholarship,  then,  con- 
cerns itself  with  activity,  and  with  activity  only.  Method, 
too,  must  deal  with  activity,  and  with  that  alone.  The 
realm  of  device,  of  external  means,  is  also  one  of  doing ;  of 
activit}^  In  this  fact — that  device  is  activity,  that  method 
deals  with  and  is  activity,  that  the  subject-matter  of  scholar- 
ship is  activity  —  rests  the  source  of  the  indistinctness  as  to 
their  respective  provinces. 

OBJECTIVE    METHOD. 

The  activity  that  scholarship  investigates  appears  in  ever- 
recurring  types.  This  activity  may,  therefore,  appropri- 
ately take  unto  itself  the  term  method.  Every  branch  of 
study  investigates  activity  as  type  or  law  ;  and  law  is 
method,  and  method  is  law.  The  past  makes  us  its  debtor 
by  handing  over  to  us  this  thought  in  the  very  term  method 
itself.  The  word  method  signifies  according  to  a  way.  But 
what  is  it  that  is  according  to  a  way  ?  And  what  is  meant 
by  a  way?  If  the  thought  above  presented,  viz.,  that  there 
is  nothing  in  the  universe  other  than  activity,  then  it  must 
be  activity  that  is  according- to  a  way.  And,  moreover,  the 
.way  itself  is  necessarily  an  activity.  Then  it  becomes  clear 
that  the  past  transfers  to  us  this  thought  which  it  had 
garnered  from  the  fields  of  experience  —  a  method  is  an  ac- 
tivity according  to,  or  in  harmon}^  with,  activity,  The  first 
activity  mentioned  must  be  the  real  one,  the  one  actually 
occurring;  the  one  exhibiting  itself  in  some  product.     The 


The  PROBI.KM  OF  Method.  17 

second  activity  referred  to  mUvSt  be  the  ideal  one  ;  the  typi- 
cal activity  ;  the  norm  ;  it  is  both  the  end  and  the  criterion 
of  the  real  activity ;  of  the  one  that  is  actually  occurring. 
A  method,  then,  is  a  real  activity  according  to,  and  in  har- 
mony with  an  ideal  activity.  It  now  becomes  somewhat 
more  clear  that  close  thought  only  will  render  distinct  the 
provinces  of  scholarship,  method  and  devices,  and  likewise 
their  unity. 

Ever}^  branch  of  study  has  for  its  subject-matter  certain 
particulars,  certain  phenomena  that  are  essentially  its  own. 
These  phenomena  may  appear  in  other  branches,  of  study  as 
well  as  in  this  one,  but  they  do  not  appear  in  those  other 
branches  in  the  same  aspect  that  they  do  in  this.  The  cot- 
ton plant  appears  as  a  fact  in  geography.  It  is  also  present 
as  one  of  the  phenomena  considered  in  botany.  As  a  geo- 
graphical fact,  however,  it  is  not  identical  with  itself  as  a 
botanical  fact.  If  in  this  sense  each  branch  of  study  has  its 
own  set  of  particulars,  the  activity  that  produces  any  one 
of  these  particulars  must  be  typical.  Why  does  one  in  look- 
ing at  a  piece  of  sandstone  say,  This  is  not  a  good  speci- 
men ?  It  is  because  the  activity  that  produced  it  was  not 
according  to  the  type  ;  to  the  ideal.  The  activity  that  pro- 
duces the  facts  in  history  or  in  geology,  must  be  activity 
according  to  the  type  ;  according  to  the  ideal.  Hence,  in 
this  sense,  activity  is  a  method.  The  activity  that  produces 
a  grammatical  fact,  the  activity  that  produces  a  geograph- 
ical fact,  the  activity  that  produces  a  historical  fact  is  a 
method,  because  it  is  an  activity  which  has  as  its  end  and 
criterion  an  ideal.  Identity  with  this  ideal  must  be  the  end 
of  the  activity,  and  the  ideal  is  its  criterion.  It  is  with  such 
a  thought  in  mind  that  one  says.  This  is  not  truly  a  geo- 
graphical fact  ;  that  is  not  really  a  grammatical  fact ;  that 
ought  not  to  be  termed  a  historical  fact.  There  is,  then,  a 
method  in  the  subject^  and  this  method  is  the  activity  that 


18  The  Problem  of  Method. 

produces  the  individuals  composing  the  subject-matter. 
Such  activity  is  in  the  realm  of  scholarship. 

The  problem  in  a  given  branch  of  study  is  to  investigate 
the  nature  of  the  activity  that  produces  its  facts  ;  to  deter- 
mine the  various  phases  thereof  and  their  relations  to  one 
another.  For  example,  the  noun  is  a  fact  in  grammar.  The 
activity  that  produces  it  is  different  from  the  activity  that 
produces  the  lily  of  the  valley.  Grammar  must  investigate 
the  first  activity,  botany  the  second.  Each  branch  of  study 
is,  however,  an  investigation  of  the  method  that  creates  the 
individuals  in  its  subject-matter.  This  activity  may  be 
termed  the  objective  method. 

Every  branch  of  study,  therefore,  has  its  objective  method. 
By  this  is  meant  the  method,  the  activity,  the  force,  the  en- 
ergy that  produces  the  different  individuals  composing  the 
subject-matter.  For  example,  the  subject  of  reading  has 
what  may  be  termed  its  objective  method.  This  is  the  en- 
ergy, the  force,  the  activity  required  to  produce  the  various 
individuals  in  the  subject-matter  ;  such  as  *'  Thanatopsis,  " 
''Evangeline,"  '' The  Burial  of  Sir  John  Moore,"  "The 
lyCgend  of  Sleepy  Hollow,"  &c.  Grammar  has  its  objec- 
tive method.  This  is  the  activity,  the  energy,  the  force 
that  creates  the  various  individuals  included  in  the  subject- 
matter  of  grammar;  as,  the  noun,  the  adverb,  the  preposi- 
tion, &c.  History  as  a  branch  of  study  has  its  objective 
method.  This  is  the  activity,  the  energy,  the  force  that  cre- 
ated the  various  individuals  in  the  subject-matter,  as,  the 
battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  the  Hartford  Convention,  the  Seces- 
sion Ordinance,  &c.  The  investigation  of  such  activities 
and  their  products,  is  within  the  realm  of  scholarship. 

When  scholarship  has  revealed  the  essential  nature  of  this 
activity  —  this  objective  method  of  the  subject  —  it  has 
grasped  the  true  basis  from  which  may  be  inferred  three  im- 
portant things. 


The  Problem  of  Method.  19 

Scope. — One  of  these  is  the  scope  of  the  subject-matter. 
It  is  the  function  of  scholarship  to  determine  this — to  decide 
what  facts  belong  within  the  range  of  the  subject,  and  what 
ones  are  excluded. 

Divisions  and  snb- divisions. — Another  important  thing  that 
is  to  be  inferred  is  the  divisions  within  this  subject-matter. 
The  academic  work  in  any  branch  of  study,  therefore,  after 
making  clear  the  scope  of  the  subject,  infers  from  the  na- 
ture of  the  creative  activity  the  divisions  and  sub-divisions 
belonging  to  the  subject-matter,  carrying  such  down  to  the 
particulars. 

Relative  Importance. — It  is  the  function  of  academic  work 
to  investigate  the  relative  importance  of  divisions,  sub-divi- 
sions and  particulars.  This  is  the  third  inference.  The 
general  knowledge  of  the  subject  and  these  four  specific 
lines  of  investigation  may  be  said  to  belong  to  the  field  of 
scholarship.  Scholarship  does  not,  however,  as  a  rule,  de- 
vote itself  to  the  special  topics  mentioned.  It  accepts  the 
scope,  divisions,  etc.,  from  tradition  or  imposes  them  exter- 
nally. It  does  not  develop  them  from  the  organizing  prin- 
ciple. The  fact  that  academic  work  is  of  this  nature,  prac- 
tically transfers  these  four  topics  to  Method, 

SUBJECTIVE  METHOD. 

The  Mental  Steps. — In  academic  investigation  the  subject- 
matter  is  assumed  to  be  a  fact  distinct  from  the  examining 
mind;  but  as  just  stated  there  constantly  arises  a  peculiar 
set  of  questions,  such  as  :  What  is  the  relative  value  of  this 
division  compared  with  that?  Of  this  sub-division  com- 
pared with  that  ?  Of  this  particular  compared  with  that  ? 
Then  it  becomes  evident  that  there  is  a  factor  to  be  consid- 
ered over  against  all  this  with  which  scholarship  has  seemed 
to  concern  itself,  and  this  factor  is  the  mind  which  is  to  do 


20  The  ProbIvKm  of  Method. 

the  investigating.  When  one  says,  What  is  the  relative 
vahie  of  this  fact  as  compared  with  that  ?,  he  evidently 
means  the  relative  value  to  the  investigator,  arising  from 
making  subjective,  from  making  an  element  of  his  conscious- 
ness, this  fact,  as  compared  with  doing  the  same  with  that 
fact.  When  this  inquiry  arises,  one  begins  to  pass  from  the 
realm  of  scholarship  over  into  the  real  province  of  Method. 
For  in  such  inquiry  what  is  hinted  ?  A  second  activity,  a 
new  activity.  The  activity  that  produces  any  fact  in  the 
subject  of  botany  may  be  termed  the  objective  method  in 
botany.  But  here  is  another  activity — the  activity  which 
renders  this  fact  of  botany  subjective  to  the  inquiring  mind; 
the  activity  which  transmutes  the  external  fact  of  botany 
into  self,  into  consciousness. 

This  activity  is  distinctive;  that  is,  the  act  of  conscious- 
ness which  transmutes  a  fact  of  botany  into  self,  has  distin- 
guishing marks  that  set  it  off  from  the  activity  which  ren- 
ders a  fact  of  geology  an  element  of  consciousness.  The 
activity  that  produces  a  fact,  in  the  subject  of  physics,  is  the 
objective  method  in  physics  ;  but  the  activity  of  the  in- 
quiring mind  necessary  to  make  this  fact  of  physics  sub- 
jective, necessary  to  make  it  an  element  of  self,  of  conscious- 
ness, is  the  subjective  method  in  physics. 

Every  branch  of  study,  therefore,  has  both  its  objective 
and  its  subjective  method.  The  objective  method  is  the 
activity,  energy,  or  force  that  produces  the  various  individ- 
uals that  constitute  its  subject-matter.  The  subjective 
method  is  the  activity  of  mind  necessary  to  transmute  into 
the  self  any  one  of  these  facts  of  the  subject-matter.  The 
investigation  of  this  subjective  method,  is  within  the  real 
province  of  Method.  For  example,  the  activity  that  pro- 
duces the  various  facts  in  the  subject  of  botany  is  the  ob- 
jective method  in  botany,  and  is  within  the  realm  of  schol- 
arship.    The  scope  of  the  facts  determined,  is  also  in  the 


The  Problem  of  Method.  21 

realm  of  scholarship;  as  are  likewise  the  divisions,  the  sub- 
divisions and  the  distinctions  and  unities  of  the  particulars. 
But  the  nature  of  the  activity  that  the  mind  performs  in 
mastering  any  one  of  these  facts,  and  the  relative  value  of 
the  divivsions  and  sub-divisions  of  facts,  because  of  the  na- 
ture of  this  mental  activity, — these  things  are  in  the  real 
province  of  Method. 

When  in  the  subject  of  Method,  one  has  determined  the 
essential  nature  of  this  conscious  activity  put  forth  by  the 
inquiring  mind  in  mastering  a  fact  of  the  subject,  two  im- 
portant inferences  may  be  made.  These  inferences  belong 
also  to  the  real  province  of  Method,  and  the  examination  of 
the  things  inferred  falls  likewise  within  that  province. 
What  are  the  things  to  be  inferred  from  the  nature  of  the 
mind's  activity  in  mastering  a  fact  of  a  given  subject? 

Mental  Effects. — The  first  is  the  effect  produced  upon  the 
mind  b}^  thinking  this  fact ;  by  identifying  itself  with  it. 
This  effect  appears  first  as  a  definite  mental  process — a  cer- 
tain habitude  of  mind  which  the  given  subject  alone  is  fitted 
to  establish.  For  example,  in  language  the  definite  mental 
process  begins  with  the  conceiving  of  an  object.  The  mind 
may  first  seize  the  object  in  sense-perception,  memory,  im- 
agination, but  it  ends  by  conceiving  it,  b}^  generalizing  it. 
The  next  movement  is  the  forming  of  a  purpose  to  express 
the  object  to  another.  Thereupon,  the  mind  images  the 
expression  and  then  contemplates  the  harmony,  or  corres- 
pondence between  the  object  to  be  expressed,  and  the  expres- 
sion. No  subject  other  than  language  is  fitted  to  establish 
just  this  habitude  ;  just  this  mental  process.  This  may  be 
termed  the  language  act. 

There  is  also  the  historical  act.  In  such  an  act  the  mind 
first  conceives  the  disposition,  the  mental  condition  of  the 
people.     This  is  succeeded  by  the  consideration  of  the  event 


22  The  Problem  of  Method. 

or  object  produced  by  this  condition  of  the  minds  of  the 
people.  In  the  third  place  the  mind  becomes  aware  of  the 
new  disposition,  of  the  new  mental  state  belonging  to  the 
people  as  produced  by  the  creation  and  the  contemplation 
of  this  event.  In  the  historical  act,  then,  any  event,  as  for 
example,  the  Civil  War,  appears  as  the  result  of  a  certain 
state  of  mind  in  the  people ;  and  as  a  stimulus  to  a  succeed- 
ing result  in  their  minds.  To  conceive  a  certain  state  of  the 
public  mind,  to  apprehend  this  taking  shape  in  some  event 
or  statute  ;  to  seize  the  new  state  of  the  public  mind  as  an 
effect  of  contemplating  this  event  or  statute,  is  the  peculiar 
mental  process  in  the  subject  of  history.  This  central  effect, 
this  essential  process  belonging  to  every  subject,  is  one  of  the 
effects  to  be  studied.  The  determination  of  the  exact  nature 
of  this  effect  in  relation  to  any  given  subject,  belongs  to  the 
real  province  of  Method. 

Under  effect  is  to  be  noted  also  the  emotional  response. 
In  history  there  arises  an  interest  in  the  state  of  the  public 
mind,  in  the  event  to  be  produced  thereby,  and  in  the  reflex 
influence  of  this  event.  Just  the  nature  of  this,  the  various 
opportunities  that  life  affords  for  its  play,  and  its  value  com- 
pared with  the  knowledge  of  specific  gravity  and  with  other 
ideas  and  emotions — the  discussion  of  all  such  things  be- 
longs under  the  real  province  of  Method.  It  would  pertain 
to  the  subject  of  Method  to  determine  the  main  and  the  sub- 
ordinate emotions  to  be  awakened  by  the  study  of  Dickens's 
"Hard  Times;"  by  the  study  of  "Evangeline;"  by  the 
perusal,  in  Dante's  "Divine  Comedy,"  of  the  lines  setting 
forth  the  condition  of  the  angry  and  the  sullen.  The  occa- 
sions in  life  affording  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  these 
feelings  and  the  relative  value  of  such  mental  states  com- 
pared with  a  knowledge  of  cube  root,  with  a  knowledge  of 
the  surface  of  the  United  States,  &c.,  would  belong  under 
the  realm  of  Method. 


The  Problem  of  Method.  23 

A  third  thing  to  be  noted  under  effect  is  the  volitional 
development — the  tendency  to  a  prompt  and  decisive  choice, 
and  to  persistence  in  that  choice.  It  would  belong  to  the 
subject  of  Method  to  determine  just  what  tendencies  toward 
choice  and  toward  perseverance  in  a  given  course  would  be 
awakened  and  stimulated  by  a  study  of  the  condition  of 
the  inhabitants  in  the  vestibule  to  the  Inferno — by  a  study 
of  Tito,  in  George  Eliot's  "Romola,"  as  an  example  of 
fixation  of  character — by  a  study  of  Taylor's  persistence 
in  the  Mexican  War,  and  Grant's  in  the  Civil  War.  Method 
would  also  seek  to  determine  the  various  occasions  in  life 
that  would  call  for  prompt  choosing  and  persistence,  and 
the  value  of  such  mental  traits  along  with  those  arising  from 
the  study  of  book-keeping,  compound  numbers,  &c. 

In  Method,  then,  occurs  the  examination  and  valua- 
tion of  the  entire  realm  of  effects  produced  upon  the  self  in 
its  mastery  of  the  facts  of  any  subject.  In  this  is  seen  the 
value  to  the  teacher  arising  from  a  study  of  such  subjects  as 
Aesthetics,  Ethics,  L^ogic,  Psychology  and  Philosophy. 

The  main  mental  process  in  mastering  a  subject  gives  the 
ke}^  to  the  relative  educational  value  as  a  subject  —  its  value 
as  a  subject  compared  with  other  subjects. 

Means. — The  second  thing  to  be  inferred  from  the  main 
mental  process  employed  in  mastering  a  given  subject,  is 
the  means,  devices,  or  instrumentalities  appropriate  to  the 
direction  and  stimulation  of  this  mental  process — appropri- 
ate ta  the  awakening  and  fixing  of  the  mental  effects  natur- 
ally belonging  to  the  subject.  This  includes  a  considera- 
tion of  the  teacher  himself ;  of  the  range  of  his  scholarship ; 
of  his  disposition ;  of  the  trend  of  his  sympathies ;  of  the 
harmony  of  his  character  ;  of  his  industry ;  of  his  quick- 
ness of  insight ;  of  his  ability  as  a  questioner ;  of  his  spirit 
as  an  enquirer,  and  of  the  relation  of  all  these  qualities  to  the 


24  Thk  Problem  of  Mkthod. 

stimulating  and  directing  of  the  mental  process  in  the  learner. 
Under  this  topic  is  included  not  only  the  determining  of  the 
devices,  but  also  the  deciding  of  the  order  of  their  employ- 
ment and  the  grounds  therefor. 

It  seems,  therefore,  that  to  every  branch  of  study  belong 
not  only  an  objective  method,  or  the  activity  which  creates 
the  individuals  of  the  subject-matter,  a  scope  or  range  of  the 
subject-matter,  various  divisions,  subdivisions,  and  attri- 
butes of  distinction  and  unity  in  the  particulars ;  but  also  a 
subjective  viethod,  viz, ,  the  mental  activity  involved  in  master- 
ing any  fact  of  the  subject-matter,  together  with  the  effects, 
relative  value  and  instrumentalities  to  be  inferred  therefrom. 

The  real  province  of  scholarship  includes  all  that  pertains 
to  the  objective  method  and  its  inferences;  and  the  real 
province  of  Method  includes  all  found  in  the  subjective 
method  and  the  inferences  essentially  involved  therein. 

Usually,  however,  in  pedagogical  schools,  the  process  of 
discovering  the  organizing  principle  of  the  branch  of  study 
and  the  internal  organization  of  the  subject  from  its  organ- 
izing.principle,  thereby  revealing  as  developments  from  this 
principle  the  scope,  the  divisions  and  subdivisions,  and  the 
relative  importance  of  divisions,  subdivisions  and  facts,  has 
to  be  assumed  as  an  element  of  pedagogical  training,  be- 
cause scholarship  has,  often,  approached  the  branch  of  study 
from  the  outside,  ignoring  its  internal  development.  It  is 
not  infrequent  that  the  presence  of  any  one  organizing  prin- 
ciple is  denied  or  that  the  value  of  knowing  it  is  questioned, 
even  if  the  subject  be  admitted  to  possess  such  a  principle. 
How  a  branch  of  study  can  be  a  science  except  on  the  condi- 
tion that  a  single  organizing  principle  unifies  all  of  its  facts 
is  not  clear.  Nor  is  it  clear  why  the  discovery  of  this 
principle  and  the  genetic  organization  of  the  subject  from 
it  is  not  the  predominant  trend  of  work  after  the  student 
has  the  elementary  knowledge  of  the  facts  of  the  subject. 


The  Problem  of  Method.  25 


CHAPTER  IV. 


SPECIAL  METHOD. 

The  clearest  idea  as  to  the  nature  of  method  arises,  pro- 
bably, from  an  examination  of  the  process  in  a  particular  act 
of  learning.  The  general  aspect  of  this  appears  as  the  fun- 
damental movement  of  consciousness.  This  fundamental 
movement  is  essentially  three-fold,  but  it  may  be  viewed  as 
consisting  of  four  phases,  inasmuch  as  iteration,  resulting 
in  instinctive  habit  may  close  the  three-fold  movement. 
The  procCvSs  is  not,  however,  four  acts  ;  it  is  a  united  activ- 
ity consisting  of  three  phases  and  a  repetition  of  these. 

The  four  avSpects  of  the  process  of  learning  are  : 

1.  Becoming  aware  of  the  object  being  studied  as  an  un- 
differentiated unit}^  In  this  phase  the  mind  apprehends 
the  distinctions  belonging  to  the  object  dimly,  in  the  form 
of  feeling,  as  it  were.  The  truth  of  the  object  is  present  to 
the  mind  as  a  mere  presentiment.  This  any  one  can  dis- 
cover by  examinining  with  care  the  state  of  mind  belonging 
to  him  when  first  giving  attention  to  any  strange  object. 

2.  Knowing  clearly  the  distinctions  in  the  object,  re- 
garding each  one  as  isolated. 

As  the  first  was  the  state  of  immediacy,  the  paradisaical 
condition  of  undisturbed  harmony,  so  this  second  phase  is 
the  stage  of  negation  ;  of  limit ;  of  determinations.  In  the 
first  a  dim  synthesis  was  made.  In  this  clear  analysis  ap- 
pears. The  mind  has  passed  from  the  simple  state  of  para- 
dise into  that  of  discord,  opposition,   difference.     The  self 

In  regard  to  presentiment  as  a  first  phase  in  knowledge,  see  Dewey's  Psychol- 
ogy, pp.  306-307. 


26  The  Probi^km  of  Method. 

being  essentially  a  unity  is,  therefore,  dissatisfied  with  this 
diversity,  and  hence  seeks  unity — not,  however,  the  undis- 
turbed unity  of  the  first  phase. 

3.  Discriminating  the  isolated  elements,  inferring  the 
dominant  characteristic  and  organizing  all  the  other  ele- 
ments according  to  their  bearing  upon  this  main  attribute. 
Thus  the  mind  returns,  as  it  were,  to  paradise  ;  but  not  to 
the  paradise  of  immediacy.  This  stage  is,  it  is  manifest, 
one  of  synthesis  ;  but  since  it  is  a  sjmthesis  following  clear 
analysis,  it  is  a  much  higher  unity  than  the  one  grasped  in 
the  first  phase.  If  paradise  was  lost  in  the  second  phase  of 
the  mind's  process,  it  is  more  than  regained  in  this  third 
stage. 

4.  A  re-thinking  of  the  organized  unity  discovered  in 
the  third  phase  under  varying  conditions  and  illustrations, 
until  the  mode  of  activity,  by  passing  into  habit,  becomes  in- 
stinctive and  hence  truly  the  self.  It  thus  appears  that  the 
mind's  method  in  learning  any  object  is  an  activity  consist- 
ing of  four  phases.  It  is  true  that  the  fourth  aspect  could 
succeed  either  the  first  phase  or  the  second,  since  either  of 
these  could  become  habit.  This,  however,  would  be  a  con- 
dition of  arrested  development.  To  avoid  arrested  develop- 
ment the  mind  in  considering  any  object  must  consider  it 
under  the  four  aspects  indicated,  not  permitting  habit  to 
arise  at  the  conclusion  of  either  the  first  or  the  second 
phase.  The  mind  seems  naturally  to  tend  to  examine  any 
object  by  a  concrete  activity  consisting  of  the  four  phases  in- 
dicated. This  involves  the  assumption  that  every  object  is 
essentially  a  unity  manifesting  various  attributes. 

In  order  to  render  the  knowledge  of  this  fundamental 
process  in  learning  more  definite,  attention  will  be  given  to 
the  assumption  that  every  object  is  a  unity  revealing  itself 
in  various  attributes.     I^et  the  following  sentence  be  re- 


The  Problem  of  Method.  27 

garded  as  an  object  or  unity  exhibiting  various  attributes 
and  parts : 

"I  hear  Aztec  priests  upon  their  teocallis 

Beat  the  wild  war  drums  made  of  serpent's  skin." 

This  is  the  object  which  the  mind  is  supposed  to  be  con- 
sidering in  an  act  of  learning.  The  object  is  a  unity  in 
both  form  and  content.  In  content  it  is  a  unity  in  that 
it  expresses  a  single  object,  viz :  the  person  expressed 
by  the  first  word  as  exhibiting  himself  in  a  given  act.  The 
special  act  is  indicated  by  all  the  sentence  following  the 
word  expressing  the  actor.  In  this  portion  of  the  sen- 
tence there  is  expressed  a  central  attribute — that  of  hear- 
ing. This  action  has  as  its  object  that  denoted  by  all 
that  portion  of  the  sentence  beginning  with  the  word 
Aztec.  This  object  of  the  action  expressed  by  the  word 
"hear,"  has  also  its  unity,  namely,  the  mode  of  action 
characteristic  of  the  object  expressed  by  the  word  "priests;" 
that  is,  a  person  who  is  termed  a  priest  is  viewed  as  one 
habitually  revealing  himself  in  a  certain  mode  of  activity. 
This  central  element  exhibits  or  reveals  itself  in  the  given 
case  through  various  distinctions.  One  of  these  is  expressed 
by  the  word  "Aztec,"  another  by  the  expression  "upon 
their  teocallis  ;  "  a  third  by  the  expression  * '  beat  the  wild 
war  drums  made  of  serpent's  skin."  Each  one  of  the  dis- 
tinctions has  further  distinctions  within  it.  All  these  dis- 
tinctions, or  at  least  many  of  them,  are  in  sub-consciousness 
during  the  first  stage  in  the  act  of  learning. 

In  the  first  phase  of  the  mind's  method  in  learning,  it 
apprehends  the  entire  object  practically  as  an  undifferenti- 
ated or  fused  unity.  The  distinctions  are  merely  felt,  they 
are  not  clearly  comprehended.  Out  of  this  stage  of  dim 
knowledge  the  mind  passes  naturally  into  the  second,  that 
of  clear  distinction.  The  tendency  in  the  stage  of  distinct 
tion  is  to  be  quite  complete  in  the  analysis.     Each  element 


28  The  ProbIvEm  of  Method.  | 

is  isolated  in  thought,  becoming  a  distinct  thing  to  the  self. 
Isolation,  as  a  finality,  however,  is  distasteful  to  the  mind. 
The  ego,  therefore,  by  its  own  impulse,  passes  into  the 
third  stage,  that  of  organization.  This  third  stage  in 
which  the  self  becomes  aware  of  the  object  as  an  organized 
or  mediated  unity  is  changed  by  repetition  into  enlightened 
feeling. 

The  mind's  process  in  learning  may  be  illustrated  further 
with  the  scalene  triangle  as  an  object.  It  will  be  advan- 
tageous to  indicate,  before  considering  the  act  of  learning 
itself,  the  characteristics  of  the  object. 

Among  its  distinctions  these  are  found ;  its  surface  ;  its 
three  sides ;  its  inequality  of  its  sides  ;  its  inequality  of 
angles  ;  its  having  no  right  angle,  no  angle  larger  than  a 
right  angle,  two  angles  smaller  than  a  right  angle,  its  pos- 
sessing the  attribute  of  differing  from  an  isosceles  triangle, 
&c.  All  these  distinctions,  and  the  others  that  are  present, 
are  to  the  learner  unknown.  In  rendering  this  object  sub- 
jective, the  first  phase  of  the  mind's  process  is  that  in  which 
it  apprehends  it  indistinctly,  as  a  whole.  In  this  stage  its 
differentiations  are  but  dimly  felt,  the  learner  having  merely 
a  presentiment  of  them. 

Through  dwelling  upon  the  object,  however,  the  mind 
gradually  becomes  aware  of  all  the  various  distinctions,  and 
in  obedience  to  its  analytic  tendency  these  distinctions  are 
strictly  isolated.  Therefore  division  or  negation  becomes  too 
prominent.  By  continuing  to  examine  the  object  the  mind 
is  led  to  seek  unity.  Through  the  acts  of  discovering  and 
isolating  the  predominant  attribute  and  relating  the  other 
characteristics  to  this  central  one,  the  mind  organizes  the 
object.  Thus  the  object  becomes  truly  a  unity  to  the  self. 
Continued  attention  to  it  in  this  aspect,  results  in  habit. 

A  helpful  reference  to  enlightened  feeling  may  be  found  on  p.  249  of  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Study  of  Philosophy,  by  W.  T.  Harris. 


The  PROBI.KM  OF  Method.  29 

n  becoming  habit  the  activity  is  transformed  into  feeling, 
nd  since  clear  analysis  has  preceded  it,  the  feeling  is  en- 
ightened. 

This  four-fold  process  of  the  mind  may  be  still  further 
llustrated  by  an  object  from  literature  : 

THE  BUGI.E  SONG. 

1.  The  splendor  falls  on  castle  walls 

And  snowy  summits  old  in  story  ; 
The  long  light  shakes  across  the  lakes, 
And  the  wild  cataract  leaps  in  glory. 

Blow,  bugle,  blow  !  set  the  wild  echoes  flying  ! 
Blow,  bugle  !  answer,  echoes  !  dying,  dying,  dying. 

2.  O  hark  !  O  hear,  how  thin  and  clear. 

And  thinner,  clearer,  farther  going  ! 
O  sweet  and  far,  from  cliff  and  scar. 

The  horns  of  Elf-land  faintly  blowing  ! 

Blow  !  let  us  hear  the  purple  glens  replying. 
Blow,  bugle  !  answer,  echoes  !  dying,  dying,  dying. 

3.  O  love,  they  die  in  yon  rich  sk}' ; 

They  faint  on  hill,  or  field,  or  river  ; 
Our  echoes  roll  from  soul  to  vSoul, 
And  grow  forever  and  forever. 

Blow,  bugle,  blow  !  set  the  wild  echoes  flying  ! 
And  answer,  echoes,  answer  !  dying,  dying,  dying. 

—  From  "  The  Pfuicess,'^  Tennyson. 

This  object  may  be  assumed  to  exist  as  a  unity  manifest- 
ng  itself  in  a  great  variety  of  distinctions.  At  first,  how- 
;ver,  these  distinctions  are  concealed  from  the  learner, 
rhe  poem  is  apprehended  as  a  whole  ;  its  central  unity  and 
ill  the  variety  of  distinctions  are  grasped  dimly;  they  are 
nerely  felt,  that  is,  the  mind  possesses  a  presentiment  of 
heir  existence. 

Before  noticing  the  mind's  fundamental  process  as  re- 
pealed in  the  act  of  studying  The  Bugle  Song,  a  partial 
ndication  of  the  distinctions  involved  in  it  may  be  given  : 
rhere  is,  first,  the  distinction  into  exprCvSsion  and  content, 
rhe  expression  is  distinguished  into  language  and  image. 


30  The  Problem  of  Method. 

The  content  may  be  separated  into  central  thought  and  pur- 
pose. The  language,  as  a  form  of  literature,  has  in  it  many 
distinctions.  Leaving  them  for  later  consideration,  some 
of  the  distinctions  under  the  image  may  be  noted  : 

1 .  There  is  first  the  physical  background.  One  element 
of  this  is  expressed  by — *  'The  splendor  falls  on  castle  walls' ' ; 
others  by  "Snowy  summits  old  in  story" ;  "The  long  light 
shakes  across  the  lakes";  "The  wild  cataract  leaps  in 
glory";  "the  purple  glens";  "on  hill,  or  field,  or  river"; 
"yon  rich  sky".  All  these  constitute  a  physical  back- 
ground for  the  physical  echo. 

2.  A  second  element  is,  therefore,  the  physical  echo. 
This  is  an  element  in  the  complex  image  of  the  bugler,  bugle, 
the  act  of  blowing,  and  the  fljang  of  "the  wild  echoes." 
Within  these  distinctions  subordinate  characteristics  are 
found  :  The  echoes  become  "thin  and  clear";  they  are 
"sweet  and  far",  resembling  the  "horns  of  Klf-land",  &c. 

All  these,  however,  constituting  the  physical  echo,  seem 
to  be  employed  as  a  symbol  of  some  spiritual  activity;  of 
some  human  deed.     This  introduces  the  central  thought. 

3.  The  conception  of  the  central  thought  involves  the 
distinction  between  the  good  deed  and  the  evil  deed.  The 
beauty  of  the  external  background,  and  of  the  physical  echo 
are  in  harmony,  not  with  the  evil  deed,  but  with  the  good 
deed;  hence  this  distinction  of  harmony  is  involved.  There 
are  reasons  for  holding  that  evil  deeds  can  not  "grow  for- 
ever and  forever."  However  this  may  be,  the  author,  as 
indicated  by  the  beauty  of  the  physical  setting  he  has  em- 
ployed, seems  to  have  in  mind  the  good  deeds  only.  In  this 
spiritual  activity  are  involved  three  distinctions*: — 

a.  It  affects  person  after  person. 

b.  It  becomes  more  prominent,  important,  and  sub- 
stantial, as  it  passes  from  consciousness  to  consciousness. 
Herein  is  involved  a  further  distinction,  namely,  the  differ- 


The  ProbIvEm  of  Method.  31 

ence  of  the  spiritual  echo  and  the  phj^sical  echo,  as  to  growth 
and  endurance.  The  purpose  of  the  writer  also  appears  as 
a  distinction  —  the  central  one. 

c.     It  returned  to  the  producer. 

From  the  mind  of  the  learner,  however,  all  these  distinc- 
tions are  concealed.  In  the  study  of  the  poem  he  reads  it 
through  and  thus  becomes  aware  of  it  indistinctly  as  a  whole. 
His  apprehension  of  its  central  meaning  and  purpose,  and  of 
all  the  other  distinctions,  is  dim.  They  are  present  to  the 
mind  in  presentiment  only.  This  first  phase  is  natural, 
however. 

Out  of  this  presentiment  the  mind  passes  into  that  phase 
in  which  it  becomes  distinctly  aware  of  all  the  attributes  in 
the  object.  The  attributes  of  distinction,  however,  are  to 
be  limited  to  the  object  as  literature. 

Rising  out  of  this  phase  of  differentiation,  the  mind  passes 
into  the  stage  of  organized  unifying.  The  poem  has  now 
become  a  true  unity  to  the  learner. 

Through  repetition  of  the  act  of  thinking  the  poem  as  an 
organized  unity,  the  activity  becomes  a  habit.  This  is  a 
return  to  feeling,  but  it  is  now  enlightened  feeling.  The 
poem  has  finally  become  the  learner's  own,  and  he  is,  in  a 
certain  respect,  the  poem.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  this  fourth 
phase  is  merely  the  third  in  a  more  permanent  form. 

It  is  not  strange  that  the  mind  exhibits  these  three  stages 
in  the  mastery  of  any  truth,  since  the  ego  is  itself  essen- 
tially a  mode  of  activity  characterized  by  these  three  ele- 
ments. It  exists  first  as  undifferentiated;  as  a  mere  poten- 
tiality for  activity.  Acting,  it  differentiates  itself  from 
itself,  and  exists  as  object.  The  mind  is  always  its  own 
object.  This  is  the  second  phase  of  its  existence.  As  ob- 
ject it  is  distinct  from  itself  as  subject.  Continued  exam- 
ination of  itself  as  object,  however,  shows  that  this  object 
is  the  subject.    The  return  has  now  been  made  to  unity. 


32  The  Probi^em  of  Method. 

Having  previousl}^  illustrated  the  three  stages  of  mental 
action  (regarding  the  fourth  phase  as  merely  the  repetition 
or  retention  of  the  third)  it  is  now  of  importance  to  notice  : 

1.  That  there  is  a  partial  identity  between  the  first  phase 
in  learning  an  object,  namely,  apprehending  it  indistinctly, 
and  the  act  of  being  engrossed  with  the  material  and  consider- 
ing the  material,  i.  e. ,  space-occupying  objects  to  be  the  all 
in  all.  Being  engrossed  with  the  material  is  not,  however, 
fully  identical  with  the  first  phase  of  the  mind's  movement, 
because  this  first  phase  includes  also  failure  to  distinguish 
the  varying  attributes  in  the  object.  This,  however,  is  to  be 
noticed  :  Each  object  is  material  and  spirit,  or  meaning. 
The  human  being  is  material  and  spirit ;  the  transom  above 
the  door  is  material  and  spirit,  or  meaning.  The  driver 
wheel  on  an  engine  is  material  and  spirit,  or  meaning.  It 
therefore  follows  that  to  be  engrossed  with  the  material, 
considering  it  to  be  the  all  in  all,  is,  to  a  degree,  identical 
with  grasping  a  thing  dimly. 

2.  That  the  concentration  of  the  attention  on  the  spirit- 
ual element  as  the  all  in  all,  is  to  a  certain  extent,  identical 
with  the  second  stage  in  the  mind's  fundamental  movement. 
To  thus  consider  spirit  is  to  isolate  it.  The  true  position  is 
reached  when  neither  the  material  nor  the  spiritual  is  re- 
garded as  the  total.  The  truth  is  found  in  the  unity  of 
both.  To  exalt  the  physical  is  to  dwell  in  the  first  phase  of 
thought.  To  isolate  and  exalt  the  spiritual  is  to  dwell  in 
the  second  phase;  in  the  phase  of  isolation,  of  negation. 
The  reason  that  this  is  termed  isolation  while  the  first  is 
not,  is  that  it  requires  distinction  or  analysis,  to  discover 
the  spiritual. 

3.  That  the  third  stage  is  to  a  degree,  identical  with  the 
process  of  discovering  the  deeper  unity  which  is  seen  to  be 
the  source  or  origin  of  both  the  physical  and  the  spiritual. 


The  PROBI.EM  OF  Method.  33 

Both  experience  and  history  show  that  these  three  phases 
are  true,  as  to  the  child  and  as  to  the  race. 

a.  In  religion,  for  example,  when  a  people  is  substan- 
tially in  the  first  phase  of  thought,  it  finds  its  Gods  in  ex- 
ternal nature.  When  in  the  second  phase  it  finds  its  Gods 
in  alienation  from  nature.  Thus  while  the  hills  smoked 
and  trembled  in  the  presence  of  the  Jehovah  of  the  Jews, 
He  does  not  appear  as  in  unity  with  the  physical  universe ; 
while  ruling  over  it  He  is  foreign  to  it.  It  does  not  reveal 
Him. 

The  third  stage  in  the  growth  of  religious  thought  discov- 
ers as  its  God  a  fundamental  unity ;  an  activity  which  is 
revealed  both  in  everything  spiritual  and  in  everything 
physical. 

b.  In  philosophy,  the  same  is  found  to  be  true.  In  the 
first  phase  of  thought  the  first  principle  of  the  universe  was 
found  to  be  chaos,  moisture,  fire,  air,  and  the  like.  In  the 
second  phase  the  spiritual  was  more  prominent.  Its  won- 
derful properties  were  exalted  and  regarded  as  the  criterion. 
Thus  the  sophists  found  the  individual  spirit  of  man  to  be 
the  measure  of  all  things.  When,  however,  philosophy 
reached  the  third  stage  of  thought,  Socrates  discovered  that 
the  characteristic  which  makes  man  the  measure  of  all  things 
is  not  his  particularity.  It  is  the  divine  element  in  him, 
in  all  other  human  beings,  and  in  the  Absolute  Spirit.  In 
this  third  stage  of  philosophy  unity  became  prominent, 
because  the.  first  principal  was  regarded  as  the  source  of 
everything  spiritual  and  physical,  and  as  revealed  in  them. 

G.  In  history  this  vSame  truth  is  shown.  In  the  first 
phase  of  thought  the  events  are  regarded  as  the  history. 
This  is  abstract  or  partial.  In  the  second  phase  a  deeper  view 
is  gained.  The  feelings,  purposes  and  thoughts  of  the  people 
underlying  these  outside  acts  are  regarded  as  history.  This 
view  is  also  abstract  or  partial.     The  spiritual  is  no  more 


34  Thk  Problem  of  Method. 

truly  the  man  than  are  his  objectifications.  The  property 
that  one  has  acquired  is  will  objectified.  Any  work  of 
art,  is  in  a  sense  the  artist,  An}^  historical  or  scien- 
tific work  given  to  the  world  is  the  producer.  Therefore 
the  concrete,  i.  e.,  the  complete  view  in  history,  is  not 
reached  until  one  enters  upon  the  third  stage  of  thought. 
In  this  stage  those  concrete  productions  known  as  the  insti- 
tutions, viewed  as  produced  by  man's  spiritual  growth 
toward  freedom  and  as  reacting  upon  man  are  the  history. 
Thus  it  is  with  everything.  For  example,  the  physical 
constituents  and  form  of  the  door  key  are  not  the  key. 
The  view  that  they  are  is  abstract,  and  hence  incomplete. 
The  thought  of  the  door  key  is  not  the  door  key.  This 
view  is  also  abstract  and  incomplete.  The  thought  of  the 
door  key  revealed  in  a  particular  way,  that  is,  its  two 
sides  taken  as  a  concrete  unity,  constitutes  the  door  key. 
This  same  process  which  has  manifested  itself  in  the  growth 
of  religion,  philosophy,  and  history,  reveals  itself  in  the 
growth  of  the  conception  of  Method.  It  is  natural  that  the 
method  in  any  subject  should  be  found  in  this  fundamental 
movement  of  mind,  which  is  just  the  mind's  method.  This 
method  of  consciousness  is  not,  however,  the  special  method 
in  any  particular  subject.  The  distinctive  method  in  any 
branch  of  study  is  analogous  to  the  third  stage  of  knowing. 
The  reason  for  this  is  that  special  method  is  a  relation.  For 
example,  method  in  geography  is  not  this  fundamental 
movement  of  mind  ;  neither  is  it  any  external  mode  of  ac- 
tivity. It  is,  however,  the  fundamental  movement  of  con- 
sciousness specialized  as  it  would  necessarily  be,  in  the 
mind's  act  of  knowing  a  geographical  fact. 

In  its  general  aspect  method  in  geography  is  the  funda- 
mental movement  of  mind.  Defined  more  accurately,  it  is 
this  fundamental  movement  modified  by  the  distinctive  kind 
of  subject-matter  belonging  to  geography.     In  summariz- 


The  Problem  of  Method.  35 

ing,  it  may  be  said  that  method  is  at  first  conceived  as  some- 
thing external — as  a  mode  of  physical  action  ;  as  a  series  of 
actions  consisting  of  directions,  questions,  illustrations,  ex- 
planations, etc.,  since  such  actions  bear  a  certain  relation 
to  the  method  itself,  and  are  more  easily  noticed  than  the 
underlying  method.  As  above  noted,  the  universal  ten- 
dency in  the  infancy  of  thought,  is  to  be  engrossed  with  the 
external  aspect  of  a  thing,  and  to  consider  this  external  aspect 
as  the  thing  itself.  This  is,  however,  an  abstract  or  incom- 
plete view.  The  tendency  to  note  the  external  aspect  when 
in  the  lower  stages  of  development,  is  no  more  a  universal 
mark,  however,  than  is  the  tendency  to  note  the  internal  or 
spiritual  aspect  in  the  second  stage,  and  to  consider  it  as  an 
isolated  thing,  and  as  the  whole.  To  center  attention  on  the 
spiritual  aspect  in  its  generality,  viewing  it  as  if  it  were  the 
total  object,  is,  as  above  noted,  also  abstract.  This  incom- 
plete mode  of  regarding  the  spiritual  is  illustrated  by  such 
expressions  as  :  "The  method  in  arithmetic  is  abstraction 
and  generalization;"  "The  method  in  studying  a  botanical 
object  is  inductive."  The  more  concrete  activity  of  mind 
is  the  tendency  to  seek  a  fundamental  or  underlying  unity  in 
the  two  incomplete  aspects  discovered  in  the  first  two  stages 
of  development,  each  in  its  turn  being  considered  as  com- 
plete; as  the  whole. 

These  three  tendencies  (including  under  the  third  habit, 
or  enlightened  feeling,  made  instinctive)  marking  the  three 
stages  of  development  in  the  race  and  in  the  individual  are, 
as  above  indicated,  mere  exhibitions  of  the  essence  of  con- 
sciousness.    The  very  nature  of  consciousness  is  : 

a.  To  exist  as  mere  energy,  as  potential,  as  immedi- 
ate.    (Subject.) 

b.  To  exist  as  object,  as  alienation,  as  other  than  the 
knowing  subject.      (Object.)     This  arises  in  the  stage  of 


36  The  Problem  of  Method. 

distinction  or  clear  analysis,  in  which  each  analyzed  element 
is  conceived  as  if  it  were  independent, 
c.  To  exist  as  Subject-Object. 
The  activity  which  at  first  was  conceived  as  object,  as 
alien,  is  now  seen  to  be  the  knower  as  well  as  the  known. 
True  unity  now  appears.  This  is  the  stage  of  differentiated 
unity.  The  three  stages  of  conceiving  as  external,  as  inter- 
nal, and  as  the  unity  of  the  external  and  internal,  are  an 
exhibition  of  what  has  been  termed  the  fundamental  process 
of  mind.     This  process  limited  to  knowledge  is, 

a.  Apprehending  the  object  indistinctly. 

b.  Analyzing  it  into  its  elements  and  emphasizing  each 
element  as  if  it  were  unrelated. 

c.  Organizing,  i.  e. ,  discovering  the  unity  of   these 
elements. 

Method  is  found  in  the  relation  of  the  facts  of  the  subject 
to  the  fundamental  process  of  knowing. 

A  fact  in  a  subject  is  one  element  of  the  subject  with  a 
certain  attribute  of  it  emphasized  according  to  the  mind's 
interest.  More  definitely,  then,  method  is  the  fundamen- 
tal movement  of  mind  in  the  examination  of  an  object  with 
reference  to  a  given  attribute  that  has  been  exalted  and  em- 
phasized by  the  mind's  interest.  The  method  of  a  subject, 
then,  is  always  one  and  the  same.  Method  as  a  process 
does  not  change.  Our  conception  of  what  method  is, 
changes.  In  the  first  stage  of  thought  method  is  viewed  as 
a  set  of  external  acts.  In  the  second  stage  of  thought  the 
mind  looks  beneath  the  series  of  external  acts  and  discovers 
the  implied  series  of  psychological  activities.  These  are 
viewed  as  the  method.  Both  of  these  views  are  abstract, 
and,  therefore,  incomplete. 

In  the  third  stage  of  thought  — 

a.     The  mind  thinks  beneath  each  psj^chological  activ- 
it}^,  whether  it  be  sense-perception,  memory,  imagination. 


Thk  Problem  of  Method.  37 

judgment,  or  any  other,  and  discovers  that  each  is  merely  a 
manifestation  of  the  mind' s  fundamental  movement — grasp- 
ing the  object  dimly,  analyzing  definitely  and  re-unifying. 

b.  It  then  examines  the  facts  of  the  subject,  noting  as 
the  essential  thing  the  human  interCvSt  or  purpose  that  gives 
organization  to  the  facts  of  the  subject  by  furnishing  the 
principle  that  makes  the  subject  a  distinct  branch  of  study. 
Herein  is  discovered  the  organizing  idea  of  the  subject. 

c.  The  mind  then  discovers  that  the  process  of  the  mind 
in  learning  the  subject,  i.  e.,  the  special  method  of  the  sub- 
ject, is  just  the  fundamental  movement  of  mind  specialized 
by  the  peculiar  subject-matter  of  this  branch  of  study. 

Let  arithmetic  be  considered  for  example  : 

According  to  the  first  view  the  method  in  arithmetic  is  a 
set  of  external  acts  ;  as,  placing  a  number  on  the  board  by 
using  a  series  of  dots  showing  the  number  of  fours  in  the 
dots,  finding  the  relations  within  each  number,  constructing 
in  imagination  concrete  examples  involving  that  number, 
expressing  the  results  in  a  definite  form  on  the  black-board, 
expressing  the  results  orally,  &c. 

According  to  the  second  view  the  method  in  arithmetic 
is  some  general  psychological  activity,  as  analysis,  synthe- 
sis, deduction,  abstraction,  generalization,  &c. 

According  to  the  third  view  the  method  in  arithmetic  is 
the  fundamental  movement  of  mind  concerned  with  the  fol- 
lowing kind  of  an  object :  A  number  or  activity  viewed  as 
measurer  or  means,  and  a  number  or  activity  viewed  as 
measured  thing  or  end ;  that  is,  the  method  in  arithmetic 
is  the  fundamental  movement  of  mind  concerned  with  ratio. 
This  would  be  elaborated  more  fully  under  Special  Method 
in  Arithmetic. 

The  average  educational  thought  holds  in  general  to  the 
first  conception  of  method.  To  a  slight  extent  the  second 
conception  prevails.     Here  the  attempt  is  to  be  made  to  ex- 


38  The  Probi^km  of  Method. 

plain  the  conception  of  method  which  belongs  to  the  third 
stage  of  thought. 

To  do  this  it  is  necessary  to  set  forth  (1)  the  four  things 
that  lead  up  to  method  as  a  distinctive  thing — central  prin- 
ciple ;  scope ;  divisions,  sub-divisions,  and  facts ;  relative 
importance.  (2)  Method  as  a  distinctive  act.  (3)  The 
two  things  resulting  from  method — mental  effects  and  de- 
vices. 

In  beginning  to  treat  more  fully  the  different  views  of 
method,  certain  expressions  indicating  the  prevailing  idea 
as  to  what  method  is,  culled  from  various  sources,  popular, 
educational,  and  pedagogical  are  to  be  presented.  These  w^ill 
be  examined  in  order  to  determine  : 

1.  Which  indicate  the  first  stage,  namely,  the  conception 
that  Method  is  a  series  of  external  acts. 

2.  Which  indicate  the  second  stage — namely,  the  con- 
ception that  Method  is  a  certain  psychological  activity  in 
general,  as  sense-perception  or  imagination  or  induction — 
a  mere  psychological  activity  unspecialized  by  a  distinctive 
subject-matter. 

3.  Which,  if  anj^  hint  or  indicate  definitely  the  third 
conception  as  to  the  nature  of  Method. 


The  PROBI.EM  OF  Method.  39 

CHAPTER  V. 

VARIOUS  USES  OF  THE  TERM  METHOD. 

The  following  wide  range  of  examples  in  the  employment 
of  the  term  method  is  given  in  order  to  afford  the  oppor- 
tunity to  give  additional  clearness  to  the  idea  of  method  by 
first,  determining  the  exact  nature  of  the  activity  shown  in 
each  example,  and  then  testing  the  use  of  the  term  by  the 
idea  of  method  developed  in  the  previous  chapters. 

GENERAL  MEANINGS. 

(From  Dictionary.) 

1.  Eiteral  meta,  after  ;  odos,  a  way. 

2.  An  orderly  procedure  or  process  ;  regular  manner  of 
doing  anything  ;  hence,  manner,  way,  mode  ;  as,  a  method 
of  teaching  languages  ;  a  method  of  improving  the  mind. 

—  \_Addison. 

3.  Orderly  arrangement,  elucidation,  development,  or 
classification  ;  systematic  arrangement  peculiar  to  an  indi- 
vidual. 

Though  this  be  madness,  yet  there's  method  in  it. 

—  \Shak. 

4.  All  method  is  rational  progress,  a  progress  toward  an 
end. —  \Sir  W.  Hamilton. 

5.  A  mode  or  system  of  classifying  natural  objects  ac- 
cording to  certain  common  characteristics  ;  as,  the  method  of 
Theophrastus  ;    the  method  of  Ray  ;    the  I^innaean  method. 

a.  Synonyms.  Order  ;  system  ;  rule  ;  regularity  ;  way; 
manner;  mode  ;  course  ;  process  ;  means.     Method,  Mode, 


40  The  Problem  of  Method. 

Manner.  Method  implies  arrangement ;  mode,  mere  action 
or  existence.  Method  is  a  way  of  reaching  a  given  end  by 
a  series  of  acts  which  tend  to  secure  it ;  77iode  relates  to  a 
single  action,  or  to  the  form  which  a  series  of  acts,  viewed 
as  a  whole,  exhibits.  Manfier  is  literally  the  handling  of  a 
thing,  and  has  a  wider  sense,  embracing  both  method  and 
mode.  An  instructor  may  adopt  a  good  method  of  teaching 
to  write  ;  the  scholar  may  acquire  a  bad  mode  of  holding 
his  pen  ;  the  7nanner  in  which  he  is  corrected  will  greatly 
affect  his  success  or  failure. 

POPUI.AR    MEANINGS. 

-  1.  When  Controller  Eckels  wrote  that  the  failure  of  the 
National  Bank  of  Illinois  was  "  due  to  injudicious,  reckless 
and  imprudent  methods " ,  he  was  either  not  fully  informed 
as  to  the  facts,  or  he  put  the  case  much  too  mildly. — \The 
Indianapolis  J our7ial,  Dec.  26,  1896. 

2.  They  never  stop  to  think,  if  they  know,  how  the  in- 
troduction of  the  French  revolutionary  methods  would  work 
in  this  or  any  other  country. —  \Terre  Haute  Express,  Dec. 
26,  1896. 

3.  The  report  of  the  Inter-State  Commerce  Committee, 
published  last  week,  brings  out  sharply  some  of  the  methods 
by  which  the  railroads  are  evading  the  Inter-State  Com- 
merce lyaw.  It  deals  especially  with  the  traffic  associations 
by  which  railroads  now  combine  to  keep  rates  above  the 
competitive  level.  The  agreement  of  these  associations, 
says  the  Commission,  quoting  Judge  Cooley,  are  drawn  with 
• '  marvelous  ' '  ingenuity  to  evade  the  law  against  pooling. 
In  those  recently  entered  into,  the  words  "  so  far  as  legally 
can  be  done ' '  follow  provisions  for  maintaining  rates  and 
dividing  traffic  which  would  not  otherwise  be  distinguished 
from  the  pooling  arrangements  declared  illegal. — \The  Out- 
look, Dec.  26,  1896,  p.  1171. 


I 


The  Problem  of  Method.  41 

4.  We  realized  that  he  had  struck  a  blow  in  the  world 
which  will  resound  through  its  histor3^  In  him  we  find 
not  the  methods  of  the  machine  politician  or  of  the  crafty 
diplomatist,  but  the  incorruptible  citizen  and  patriotic  states- 
man.—  [Speech  of  Mr.  Lewis,  Atlanta,  Georgia. 

5.  A  survey  and  consideration  of  the  prCvSent  methods 
and  results  of  our  foreign  mission  work,  w^hen  made  from 
any  high  standpoint,  cannot  fail  to  produce  in  most  observ- 
ers a  feeling  of  impatience  and  dissatisfaction.  Not  only 
the  hostile  censor  and  the  chronic  doubter,  but  even  the 
friendly  critic  and  the  hearty  believer  in  the  paramount 
duty  of  the  Christian  Church  to  send  missions  into  all  the 
world,  finds  in  such  survey  and  consideration  much  to  con- 
demn, or  at  least  to  seriously  question.  The  attitude  of  the 
missionary  towards  the  religion  w^iich  he  seeks  to  displace, 
the  relation  of  the  missionary  abroad  to  the  Board  at  home, 
the  very  existence  of  a  home  board  in  a  true  missionary 
economy,  the  relation  of  the  foreign  missionary  to  the  native 
Christianity,  the  very  right  and  expediency  of  the  retention 
of  permanent  settled  foreigners  in  a  field  where  the  nucleus 
of  a  native  church  has  been  formed — these  and  other  con- 
siderations of  equal  gravity  and  importance  present  them- 
selves for  the  consideration  of  the  Church.  Radical  reforms 
are  suggested  in  some  directions,  but  even  among  those  who 
would  agree  in  ultimate  ideals  there  is  wide  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  the  expedient  policy  for  the  immediate  future. 
That  radical  changes  are  needed  admits  of  no  doubt  to 
many.  While  the  great  mass  of  the  conservatives  see  no 
occasion  for  serious  change,  how  can  they  understand  why 
such  questions  should  be  raised  ? 

There  is,  however,  one  evil  in  our  foreign  missionary 
work  which  finds  almost  unanimous  recognition  ;    for  there 


42  The  Probi^em  op  Method. 

are  but  few  who  would  not  agree  with  the  recent  declara- 
tion of  a  foreign  missionary  that  ' '  denominationalism  is  a 
luxury  that  should  not  be  encouraged  in  the  foreign  field." 
While  this  sentiment  is  quite  general,  the  condition  which 
confronts  us  is  a  number  of  denominational  boards,  each 
working  on  separate  and  independent  lines  which  run  out 
into  the  furthest  missionary  field.  What  is  more,  this  con- 
dition has  in  it  evident  potency  of  long  life,  which  belongs 
to  old  and  strong  organizations,  backed  by  a  practical  de- 
nominationalism and  supported  by  a  jealous  fear  which  at 
present  is  more  strong  than  an  ideal  sentiment. 

In  view  of  this  condition,  while  we  would  neither  ignore 
the  more  radical  reforms  hinted  at  above,  nor  lose  sight  of 
ultimate  ideals,  our  purpose  is  to  suggest  an  advance  in 
missionary  methods,  which,  not  disturbing  the  existence  of 
the  denominational  boards,  nor  interfering  with  the  work 
in  the  fields,  offers  a  forward  step  both  immediate  and  prac- 
tical. The  idea  which  we  w^ould  present  is  that  of  a  gen- 
eral Missionary  Board  or  Commission,  which  in  some  lim- 
ited way,  should  unite  and  represent  the  .several  isolated 
denominational  boards.  Rather  than  to  attempt  to  discuss 
the  form  of  such  a  commission  and  meet  the  obvious  objec- 
tions which  might  be  offered  in  the  abstract,  we  would  pre- 
fer to  commend  the  idea  by  suggesting  some  of  the  direc- 
tions in  which  such  a  commission  would  be  of  service  suffi- 
cient to  justify  its  creation.  These  directions  of  service  are 
capable  of  a  threefold  division  as  affecting  (1)  the  work  of 
the  several  boards  which  might  co-operate  in  it ;  (2)  the 
work  and  workers  in  the  foreign  field  ;  (3)  the  Church  at 
home. 

With  regard  to  the  separate  boards,  the  Commission  could 
be  of  general  economic  service  by  making  easy  a  compari- 
son of  methods  and  expenses  which  would  enable  different 
boards  to  benefit  by  the  experience  of  others,  and  so  reduce 


The  ProbIvEm  of  Method.  43 

expenses   and   improve  methods. — [77?^   Outlook,    Dec.    20, 
1896.     A  Forzvard  Step  in  Missions. 

6.  Before  Moses,  sacrifice  was  well  nigh  universal.  Many 
persons  have  the  impression  that  Moses  not  only  commanded 
sacrifice,  but  that  it  originated  with  him.  No  !  sacrifice 
was  the  universal  method  of  worship  throughout  the  world. 
Its  origin  is  pagan,  not  Jewish.  It  antedates  Judaism. 
*  *  ^  Pagans  offered  their  sacrifices  everywhere,  on 
every  high  hill  and  under  every  green  tree.  But  this  Lev- 
itical  code  said  Israel  shall  not  do  so.  That  is  based  on  the 
idea  that  sacrifice  is  necessary,  that  one  cannot  have  favor 
with  God  unless  he  offers  sacrifice,  and  that  idea  was  by 
every  method  discouraged  and  denied. — [Gospel  Doctrine  of 
Sacrifice.     Outlook,  Dec.  26,  1896. 

7.  There  is  a  method  in  man's  wickedness.  It  grows  up 
by  degrees. —  [A  King  and  No  King,  Act  V,  Scene  ^. 
Beaumont  and  Fletcher. 

8.  Who  could  have  conjectured  in  advance  anything  of 
that  widespread  system  of  Totemism  which  Frazer  has  pre- 
sented with  such  detail,  the  importance  of  which  we  are 
only  beginning  to  recognize,  and  the  significance  of  which 
we  are  scarcely  beginning  to  comprehend  ?  Indeed,  it  is 
doubtful  if  many  of  these  early  methods  of  thought  and  ac- 
tion will  ever  be  really  understood,  for  the  reason  that  these 
customs  so  soon  become  merely  traditional,  and  those  who 
practice  them  may  no  longer  attach  a  definite  significance 
to  them.  In  looking  at  methods  of  life  that  express  feelings 
and  notions  so  different  from  our  own,  we  feel,  so  far  as  any 
comprehension  is  involved,  almost  as  helpless  as  we  do  in 
watching  the  economy  of  an  ant-hill.  In  the  ant-hill  there 
is  a  civilization  very  like  our  own,  and  yet,  so  far  as  the 
inner  relations  which  it  expresses  are  concerned,  it  is  utterly 


44  The  Probi^em  of  Method. 

foreign  to  ns  and  unimaginable  by  us. — \The  Gospel  of  St. 
Paul,  by  Charles  Carrol  Everett,  p.  9. 

9.  However  these  two  methods  may,  at  the  first  glance, 
seem  to  resemble  each  other,  there  is  a  really  great  differ- 
•ence  between  them.  The  animal  is  identified  with  the 
worshipper  in  the  Jewish  scapegoat,  for  instance,  where  the 
sins  of  the  people  were  laid  upon  his  head.  Among  the 
Egyptians,  the  victim  was  sometimes  marked  with  a  seal 
bearing  the  image  of  a  man  bound  and  w^ith  a  sword  at  his 
throat.  This  was  to  show  that  the  victim  represented  the 
human  sacrifice  which  milder  manners  had  given  up. — \The 
Gospel  of  Paul, hy  Charles  Carroll  Everett,  p.  25. 

10.  It  is  hardl}^  to  be  questioned  that  the  sacrifice  and 
the  use  of  blood  as  a  means  of  purification  came  to  be  re- 
garded, to  some  extent,  in  the  same  formal  and  traditional 
manner.  At  least  there  must  have  been  a  tendency  to  the 
simple  perfunctory  use  of  such  methods  of  winning  the 
divine  favor.  Those  by  whom  the  gods  were  conceived  in 
too  spiritual  a  fashion  to  admit  of  the  earlier  and  grosser 
notions  of  sacrifice  might  still  feel  obliged  to  peform  them 
according  to  the  customary  routine  of  worship. — \_The  Gos- 
pel of  Paul,  by  Charles  Carroll  Everett,  p.  35. 

11.  As  to  the  method  b}^  which  the  death  of  Christ  took 
the  place  of  the  punishment  which  the  sinner  had  deserved, 
Pfleiderer's  statements  lack  the  clearness  which  marks  the 
greater  part  of  his  discussion. — \_The  Gospel  of  Paul,  by 
Charles  Carroll  Everett,  p.  127. 

12.  I  thus  fail  to  find  any  method  by  which  the  resurrec- 
tion of  Christ  may  be  made  to  appear  to  have  any  vital  rela- 
tion to  his  atoning  work,  as  this  is  commonly  understood. — 
{The  Gospel  of  Paul,  by  Charles  Carroll  Everett,  p.  209. 

13.  He  was  with  the  Terre  Haute  Evening  News  in  a 


The  Probi^em  of  Method.  45 

responsible  capacity  and  his  brilliant  and  aggressive  7neth- 
ods  won  for  that  newspaper  a  large  circulation. — \Terre 
Haute  Express,  Ja?i.  7,  iSgy. 

14.  The  Commission,  however,  recognized  the  necessity 
of  other  methods  of  securing  such  deliberation  and  such  pub- 
lic notice,  by  providing  that  no  important  ordinance  can  be 
acted  upon  until  several  days  after  publication  in  the  ''City 
Record."  ^  -^  -^^^  There  are  two  methods  either  one  of 
which  would  make  such  knowledge  possible.  One  would 
be  to  delegate  the  legislative  powers  to  a  small  body  of  nine, 
twelve,  or  fifteen  men,  to  be  elected  by  the  whole  city  on 
one  ticket.  The  other  w^ould  be  to  divide  the  city  into  a 
hundred  voting  districts,  and  provide  that  each  district 
should  elect  one,  and  only  one,  representative. — \Outlook, 
Editorial,  Jan.  2,  i8gy. 

15.  Perfect  methods  make  our  work  perfect. — \^Adver- 
tisemejzt  vf  a  laundry. 

16.  In  order  to  accomplish  this  result  the  melter  and 
refiner  must  have  the  pure  gold  to  begin  with.  He  must 
take  all  the  gold  out  of  the  brick,  but  in  such  a  way  as  to 
leave  no  silver  or  other  metal  connected  with  it.  His 
method  is  an  odd  one.  He  takes  the  gold  brick  and  melts  it 
with  a  lot  of  silver.  He  does  this  because  the  acid  which 
is  to  take  the  silver  out  of  the  gold  will  not  work  well  un- 
less there  is  plenty  of  the  silver  in  the  mixture.  He  knows 
just  how  much  silver  is  necessary  for  the  right  combina- 
tion, and  he  adds  this  amount  to  the  gold  brick.  The  com- 
bined metals  are  next  thrown  into  a  vessel  containing  nitric 
acid.  This  acid  has  a  peculiar  affinity  for  silver  and  for  the 
baser  metals.  It  has  no  effect  upon  gold,  but  it  sucks  all 
of  the  other  metals  out  of  the  mixture  and  combines  with 
them,  turning  them  into  a  liquid  which  looks  not  unlike 
water.     The  pure  gold  drops  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel, 


46  The  Problem  of  Method. 

while  the  silver  and  other  metals  are  left  in  the  solution. 
The  liquor  is  now  drawn  off,  and  the  melter  and  refiner  has 
a  lot  of  pure  gold,  out  of  wdiich  he  makes  another  brick  or 
bar. — [Method  in  Lajigicage  VII — Devices,  p.  ^^. 

17.  Lieutenant  Governor  Nye  ruled  him  out  of  order 
and  denied  an  appeal  to  the  Senate,  sa3ang  the  method  pro- 
vided for  organization  could  not  be  departed  from.  —  \Te7Te 
Haute  Gazette,  Ja7i.  8,  iS^y. 

18.  There  should  be  some  method  of  enrollment  and  a 
fee  demanded  as  a  condition  precedent  to  the  right  to  prac- 
tice before  the  people's  legislative  jury. — [Gov.  Ping  re  e'  s 
Message  to  the  Michigaii  Legislature. 

19.  The  same  regulation  should  be  provided  for  city  and 
town  superintendents,  as  one  year  is  not  time  enough  for 
the  putting  to  a  test  any  superintendent's  metJiods. — [Re- 
port of  Indiana  Legislative  Committee  on  School  Law. 

20.  Arrange  to  keep  such  paved  streets  clean  by  the  la- 
test improved  method.  —  [Teri-e  Haute  Gazette,  /a7t.  g,  i8gy. 

21.  But  if  we  proceed  in  our  inquiries  as  we  lately  did, 
by  the  method  of  mutual  admissions,  we  shall  combine  in 
our  own  persons  the  functions  of  jury  and  advocate. — [Bk. 
I,  Sec.  J ^8,  Plato' s  Republic. 

22.  It  is  not  promised  to  bring  prosperity  to  those  who 
do  business  according  to  reckless  and  dishonest  methods. — 
[  Crawfordsville  Journal. 

23.  The  presidential  electors  elected  last  November  held 
an  informal  meeting  at  the  Denison  House  last  evening  to 
look  into  the  law  and  learn  what  should  be  the  method  of 
procedure  in  casting  the  vote  of  Indiana  for  McKinley  and 
Hobart.  They  did  not  talk  of  who  should  be  elected  mes- 
senger, and  that  question  will  be  decided  either  by  ballot  or 
by  lot  at  the  meeting  to-day.     They  will  meet,  according  to 


I 


Thk  Problem  of  Method.  47 

law,  in  the  hall  of  the  House  at  10  o'clock  this  morning, 
and  organize  by  electing  a  chairman  and  secretary.  They 
will  then  ballot  for  president  and  vice-president  and  will 
sign  a  certificate  of  how  the  vote  was  cast  in  triplicate,  one 
copy  being  filed  in  the  Federal  Court,  another  being  trans- 
mitted by  mail  to  the  president  of  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States  and  the  other  being  sent  to  the  same  officer  by  special 
messenger,  under  seal.  Four  or  five  of  the  delegates  are 
asking  to  be  made  messenger,  and  none  of  them  would  re- 
fuse it. — \Jndia71apolis  Journal. 

24.  When  I  assumed  the  position  as  chief  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Geology  and  Natural  Resources,  I  started  out  with 
the  expressed  determination  of  making  that  department 
what  its  originators,  in  my  opinion,  intended  it  should  be — 
a  bureau  of  information,  where  any  person  can  at  anj^  time 
procure  a  knowledge  of  the  natural  resources  of  our  State. 
I  did  away  with  the  unscientific  method  of  county  surveys, 
since  the  civil  boundaries  of  a  county  have  nothing  to  do 
with  the  boundaries  or  limits  of  a  natural  resource,  and 
adopted  the  plan  of  taking  up  each  of  the  great  resources 
in  detail,  and  preparing  a  monograph  or  special  report 
thereon,  accompanied  by  maps,  cuts,  engravings  and  tables 
of  chemical  and  physical  tests. — {Report  of  State  Geologist 
to  India7ia  Legislature^  Jci^fi-y  iSgy. 

25.  Monopoly's  Method.  It  appears  that  the  Pennsyl- 
vania railroad  tried  to  pack  the  meeting  of  citizens  which 
was  held  last  night  to  protest  against  the  gift  of  Delaware 
street  made  by  the  Board  of  Public  Works  to  this  corpora- 
tion. Large  numbers  of  railroad  employes  w^ere  present 
for  the  purpose  of  destroying  the  object  of  the  meeting, 
and  they  might  have  succeeded  if  they  had  been  as  ably  led 
as  the  citizens  were. — {Indianapolis  News,  Editorial,  Jari.  12, 
1897. 


48  Thk  Problem  of  Mkthod. 

26.  One  irritating  circumstance  in  connection  with  the 
last  treaty  grows  out  of  the  peculiar  method  adopted  by  the 
State  Department  to  give  the  text  to  the  public.  Two  ex- 
tra copies  were  made,  one  of  which  was  sent  to  the  Senate 
and  the  other  given  to  a  Washington  correspondent  of  a 
London  newspaper.  It  was  supposed  at  the  department 
that  the  press  association  would  be  able  to  get  a  copy  at  the 
Senate,  but  the  rules  of  that  body  prohibited  this  being 
given  out  at  once.  The  press  associations,  therefore,  had 
to  order  the  treaty  cabled  back  from  London,  w^iereat  com- 
plaint is  made  of  discrimination  against  American  newspa- 
pers, and  much  is  being  made  of  it  in  Congress  and  out. 
Mr.  Olney  is  accused  of  being  an  Anglomaniac  and  of 
catering  more  to  the  English  people  than  to  his  American 
constituency  both  in  the  matter  arid  spirit  of  the  treaty  it- 
self and  in  the  methods  of  its  distribution  for  publication. — 
[India7iapolis  Jozir7ial,  Ja7i.  7^,  iS^y. 

27.  It  also  amends  the  election  law  by  putting  the  Re- 
publican ticket  in  the  first  column  and  making  a  few  minor 
changes  in  the  methods  of  counting,  chief  of  which  is  that 
it  gives  to  any  party  nominating  a  ticket  the  privilege  of 
having  two  watchers  at  the  polls.  —  \_Indianapolis  Journal, 
Jan.  IS,  i8p7. 

28.  Moreover  its  work  in  unmasking  imposters  and  ex- 
posing the  methods  of  fraudulent  charity-mongers  has  been 
of  great  benefit  to  the  community. — \_Report  oj  Society  Jor 
Orga7iized  Charity,  J a7i,,  i8py, 

29.  "A  few  years  ago,"  said  a  local  newspaper  man  last 
night,  "  I  saw  as  much  of  Mr.  McCullagh  as  any  man  could. 
I  knew  his  77tethods.  He  gave  his  time  to  his  paper.  In  the 
old  building  where  all  were  crowded  together  there  was  but 
one  chair  that  any  one  could  sit  in,  and  that  was  occupied 
by  the  editor.     The  others  were  heaped  with  books,  so  that 


Thk  Problkm  of  Method.  49 

it  was  impossible  for  him  to  ask  any  one  to  be  seated.  He 
read  the  papers,  and  as  he  read  wrote  the  crisp  editorial 
paragraphs  which  have  long  been  a  feature  of  the  Globe- 
Democrat.  He  never  permitted  himself  to  be  bored.  If  he 
wanted  an  article  he  knew  it,  and  would  send  the  writer  a 
check  for  it.  If  he  did  not,  he  would  waste  no  words  about 
it.  It  was  said  that  his  moods  had  something  to  do  with 
his  decisions. — \_India71apolis  Journal. 

30.  It  must  be  gratifying  to  all  good  citizens  to  note  the 
energetic  methods  that  obtain  with  the  management  of  the 
local  branch  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association. 
The  Sunday  afternoon  meetings  of  the  association  are  at- 
tended by  more  men  than  any  other  service  in  the  city,  and 
that  they  are  the  sources  of  much  profit  as  well  as  of  great 
pleasure  there  is  no  doubt.  Their  success  is  perhaps  due  in 
large  measure  to  the  restlessness  of  the  General  Secretary. 
He  is  a  firm  believer  in  the  efficacy  of  advertising — a  species 
of  orthodoxy  that  some  business  men  have  yet  fully  to 
grasp.  When  he  starts  out  "  to  work  up  a  meeting,"  as  he 
phrases  it,  he  does  not  rest  until  he  has  accomplished  his 
purpose.  On  Saturday  nights  the  citizens  of  Terre  Haute 
are  greeted  by  announcements  in  chalk  written  on  the  side- 
walks and  at  other  conspicuous  places  telling  them  that  ' '  to- 
morrow afternoon  Mr.  So-and-So  will  speak  at  the  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association  rooms."  As  a  rule,  also,  the 
same  announcement  is  made  in  the  various  churches  on  the 
next  morning  and  the  fact  is  given  publicity  in  as  many 
ways  as  possible. —  \Saturday  Evening  Mail,  Jan.  16,  iS^y, 

31.  It  is  a  simple  and  antidotal  volume  of  advice  and 
suggestion  about  the  manners,  customs,  habits  and  moral 
qualties  and  methods  of  work  which  a  priest  ought  to  culti- 
vate.—  \_The   Outlook,  Jan.    16,    18 gy.      The   Books   oj  the 

Week. 


50  The  Probi.em  of  Method. 

32.  The  Board  of  Superintendents,  acting  as  a  central 
body  for  the  whole  school  system  of  the  city,  has  attended 
to  all  appointments  and  promotions  ;  the  superintendent 
states  it  to  be  the  present  method  of  administration. — \The 
Outlook^  Jan.  i6,  1^97-      The  Teaching  Profession. 

33.  He  did  it  more  cleverly  than  the  inventor  and  his 
efforts  in  the  performance  were  an  improvement  upon  Hou- 
din's  methods.  Heller  was  the  first  magician  to  introduce  a 
lady  confederate  and  assistant  in  the  magical  entertainment. 
He  likewise  discarded  the  use  of  all  visible  apparatus,  cur- 
tains and  tapestries.  Wyman  is  perhaps  the  first  magician 
the  present  middle  age  can  recollect  of  its  childhood.  His 
methods  were  clumsy  in  contrast  to  those  of  latter  day  ma- 
gicians, but  his  wonders  seemed  marvels  and  his  crowning 
feat  of  extracting  real  eggs  and  a  live  chicken  from  an  ap- 
parently empty  bag  was  a  feat  beyond  which  nothing  ap- 
peared more  startling.  He  combined  ventriloquism  with  his 
entertainment  and  a  large  source  of  his  fame  rested  upon 
his  powers  in  this  species  of  entertainment. — \Indianapolis 
Journal^  Jan.  ly.  i8gy.     Magic  and  Magicians. 

34.  The  doctors  had  failed  in  the  attempt  to  secure  pic- 
tures of  the  thoughts  in  their  minds,  and  only  attained  their 
purpose  by  the  indirect  method  of  having  them  impressed 
first  on  the  brains  of  others.  Before  the  subjects  were 
placed  under  the  hypnotic  spell  each  was  instructed  to  think 
of  nothing  but  his  own  hand.  Bach  imagined,  then,  that 
the  laboratory  was  full  of  hands  and,  judging  by  the  dis- 
tinct impressions  received  of  a  photographic  plate,  the  hands 
were  really  there. — \India7iapolis  Jotirnal,  Jan.  ly,  i8gy. 
Thought  Photography . 

35.  The  district  method  of  electing  county  commission- 
ers works  very  unjustly  in  this  county.  Under  the  present 
system  Indianapolis,  which  with  its  suburbs  has  nine-tenths 


The  ProbIvEm  of  Method.  51 

of  the  population  of  the  county  and  pa3's  eight- tenths  of  the 
taxes,  has  onlj^^one  of  three  commissioners.  The  result  is 
that  it  has  little  or  no  voice  in  the  action  of  the  board,  be- 
ing always  voted  'down  in  matters  of  local  interest  by  the 
country  members.  If  the  district  method  of  electing  com- 
missioners is  to  continue  in  general,  an  exception  should  be 
made  of  counties  containing  cities  of  a  certain  population. — 
\Editorial  in  Indianapolis  J ouriial,  Jan,  20,  18 py, 

36.  The  Associated  Press  report  of  the  scene  with 
Speaker  Reed  sa3^s  that  the  committee  of  members  pointed 
out  the  necessity  of  the  buildings  mentioned,  and  said  that 
it  was  evident  that  the  majority  of  the  House  desired  their 
consideration.  Speaker  Reed  asked  them  if  they  were 
aware  that  the  government  was  running  behind  in  the  mat- 
ter of  revenue  at  the  rate  of  $58,000,000  a  year.  It  was  a 
question  of  the  ability  of  the  government  to  meet  and  pay 
its  obligations.  The  committee  replied  that  the  bills  did 
not  appropriate  a  dollar,  but  only  fixed  the  maximum  of 
cost  of  the  buildings,  the  appropriations  being  left  in  the 
hands  of  future  Congresses.  Mr.  Reed  said  that  he  did  not 
approve  of  this  method  of  mortgaging  the  revenues  of  the 
government,  to  which  the  committee  replied  that  they  could 
not  mortgage  what  did  not  exist  and  thought  that  the  sub- 
ject of  making  appropriations  could  be  safely  left  to  future 
Congresses.  The  committee  came  away  feeling  that  it  was 
not  a  cheerful  outlook. 

37.  An  operator  comes  forward,  and  under  his  guidance 
we  look  into  the-  methods  of  attending  to  a  most  important 
branch  of  the  fire  service — that  of  receiving  and  recording 
an  alarm  of  fire  from  a  street  box,  and  transmitting  the 
same  to  the  engine  companies  nearest  to  the  fire,  in  the 
shortest  possible  time.  ^  ^l-^  *  After  this  when  we  see  a 
fire  company  responding  to  the  call  of  duty,  we  wnll  better 


52  Thk  ProbIvKm  of  Mkthod. 

appreciate  the  methods  that  have  been  used  to  send  them  on 
their  noble  errand.  —  \St.  Nicholas^  Feb. ,  i8^y. 

38.  Au  Gau  gazed  scornfully  upon  the  scene,  as  these 
demonlike  figures  danced  in  and  out  of  the  smoke  and  fire. 
* '  Look  at  those  red-headed  demons  !  They  seem  to  be  fire- 
proof, "  he  remarked  to  his  uncle.  After  pondering  a  while, 
he  continued  :  "I  have  been  told  that  all  this  noise,  fire 
and  smoke  is  to  drive  away  evil  spirits  ;  but  it  seems  to 
bring  them,  like  flies  around  a  sugar  bowl."  The  seeming 
failure  of  this  noisy  method  of  combatting  the  bad  spirits  set 
his  young  mind  to  thinking. — \St.  Nicholas,  Feb.,  iSpy. 

39.  Mr.  Carlisle  is  an  able  man,  and,  as  politicians  go, 
a  good  deal  of  a  statesman,  but  he  has  not  developed  any 
originality  or  ability  as  a  financier  nor  shown  any  familiarity 
with  financial  methods.     Indianapolis  Journal,  Jan.  jo,  iSp/, 

40.  Washington,  Jan.  30. — Communications  from  the 
church  bodies  in  various  parts  of  the  country  are  being 
received  by  members  of  the  House  committee  on  mili- 
tary affairs  regarding  the  action  of  the  secretary  of  war  in 
granting  permission  for  the  erection  of  a  Catholic  cathedral 
building  on  the  government  grounds  at  West  Point.  The 
matter  seems  to  have  brewed  a  commotion  nearly  equal  to 
that  which  has  raged  over  school  appropriations  if  the  let- 
ters coming  in  are  a  sign.  Several  communications  from 
bishops,  ministers  of  organizations,  as  well  as  from  laymen, 
have  been  received.  Three  other  religious  bodies  have  ap- 
plied for  information  as  to  whether  they  will  also  be  allowed 
to  place  church  buildings  on  the  West  Point  grounds.  It 
is  possible  that  the  matter  may  be  brought  before  Congress 
by  a  resolution  of  inquiry  or  some  other  method. — [Indian- 
apolis Journal,  Jan.  ji,  I  Spy. 

41.  The  antiquity  of  the  legal  methods  is  curiously  illus- 
trated by  the  recent  discovery  of  the  oldest  will  extant. 


The  ProbIvEm  of  Method.  53 

This  unique  document  was  unearthed  by  Professor  Petrie  at 
Kahum,  Egypt,  and  is  at  least  four  thousand  years  old.  In 
its  phraseology  the  will  is  singularly  modern  in  form,  so 
much  so  that  it  might  be  admitted  to  probate  to-da}^ — [In- 
dianapolis  Journal,  Jan.  ji,  i8gy. 

42.  The  Administrative  Board  of  Libraries,  I^aboratories 
and  Museums  at  meetings  held  on  November  28,  1896,  and 
January  23,  1897,  took  the  following  action  : 

In  the  place  of  Special  Regulation  No.  3  governing  De- 
partmental Libraries,  the  following  was  substituted  : 

All  officers, of  instruction  may,  with  the  approval  of  the 
appropriate  departmental  adviser  withdraw  books  from  the 
library  of  their  own  department  and  retain  them  for  a  lim- 
ited period  to  be  agreed  upon  by  the  borrower  and  the  de- 
partmental adviser. 

In  the  carrying  out  of  this  rule,  the  following  methods 
shall  be  employed  : 

1.  The  records  of  withdrawal  of  books  are  to  be  kept  in 
each  departmental  library  in  an  instructor's  loan  book  pro- 
vided for  that  purpose,  and  the  drawer  shall  record  his 
name,  etc.,  title  of  the  book,  accession  number,  and  the  date 
of  the  withdrawal. 

2.  The  departmental  advisor  in  connection  with  the  head 
of  the  department  shall  determine  the  conditions  under 
which  books  may  be  withdrawn  from  a  departmental  library, 
and  inform  the  general  library  of  these  conditions, 

3.  The  departmental  adviser  may  through  the  general 
library  call  in  the  book  at  anytime. — \JJniversity  Record^ 
Chicago,  Jan.  2g,  iSyp. 

43.  No  one  has  blamed  Mr.  Rohl-Smith  for  accepting  a 
commission  which  was  offered  him  by  those  having  legal 
power  to  make  the  offer.  Those  whom  the  society  has 
blamed  are  the  officials  who  selected  a  work  of  art  for  other 


54  The  Problem  of  Method. 

than  artistic  reasons.  It  is  not  necessary  to  speculate  as  to 
the  motive  of  those  who  have  misled  him  into  taking  such 
a  stand.  They  have  succeeded,  however,  in  furnishing  an- 
other example  as  to  methods  which,  in  this  instance,  the 
society  has  deplored,  and  have  done  everthing  possible  to 
preclude  even  helpful  criticism  until  it  is  too  late  to  be  of 
any  use. — \Statement  of  National  Sculpture  Society^  N.  V., 
Jan.  ji,  18g6.     From  Indianapolis  Joiwnal,  Feb.  z,  i8^y. 

44.  The  junketing  was  harmless,  but  it  helped  to  over- 
shadow the  business  side  of  the  visit  and  excited  rather  an 
undue  amount  of  censorious  comment.  In  spite  of  this  fea- 
ture, however,  the  visitation  method  continued  because  it 
seemed  to  be  the  only  available  means  of  getting  the  desired 
information.  The  bill  paSvSed  by  the  House,  if  it  becomes  a 
law,  will  end  the  junketing  business.  It  provides  that  after 
an  election  of  members  of  the  Legislature,  and  at  least  forty- 
five  days  before  the  session  opens,  the  Governor  shall  ap- 
point a  commission  consisting  of  one  senator  and  two  repre- 
sentatives-elect, who  shall  visit  and  inspect  all  the  state  in- 
stitutions and  report  to  the  Legislature  regarding  their  con- 
dition and  needs.  The  commission  is  allowed  thirty  days 
in  which  to  vivSit  all  the  State  institutions,  and  as  there  are 
fifteen  of  them  in  different  parts  of  the  State  this  is  not  too 
much. — \_Editorial  in  Indianapolis  Journal,  Feb.  i,  i8gj. 

EDUCATIONAI.   MEANINGS. 

1.  "There  is  much  3'et  to  be  said  upon  the  well-worn 
subject,  Bible  study.  There  is  still  occasion  to  ask  the 
question — and  to  ask  it  with  all  the  emphasis  which  lan- 
guage can  furnish — is  the  Bible  of  all  books,  the  book  to  be 
studied?  Shall  not  our  children  in  school,  our  sons  and 
daughters  in  college,  our  young  men  in  the  theological  semi- 
naries, study  this  book,  whatever  else  they  may  or  may  not 


Thk  PROBI.KM  OF  Method.  55 

know  ?  Shall  we  teach  the  most  minute  and  the  most  pru- 
rient details  of  Roman  and  Greek  history  and  literature, 
and  allow,  j^es,  compel  an  ignorance  of  even  the  general 
features  of  a  history  and  a  literature  which  in  spite  of  every 
untoward  circumstance  have  penetrated  and  elevated  the 
thought  and  life  of  humanity  as  have  no  other  ?  But  it  is 
not  my  purpose,  at  this  time,  to  discuss  the  subject  of  Bible 
study, 

•  "  There  is  much  also  to  be  said,  more  by  far  than  most 
people  imagine,  on  the  closely  related  question,  Bible  study. 
Please  note  place  of  emphasis,  Bible  study  (emphasis  on 
study.)  The  mass  of  those  who  count  themselves  Bible 
students  never  study.  They  read,  perhaps  :  they  seldom 
think  ,  they  never  study.  Shall  we  continue  thus  to  de- 
ceive ourselves  ?  Shall  we  substitute  the  most  hurried  and 
superficial  perusal  of  a  verse  or  chapter  for  an  earnest,  faith- 
ful examination  of  that  passage,  and  allow  ourselves  fondly 
to  suppose  that  we  have  studied  it?  Shall  that  which,  in 
some  cases,  is  worse  than  no  reading  at  all,  be  falsely  dig- 
nified and  dishonestly  branded  as  study  ?  But  it  is  not  my 
purpose  at  this  time  to  discuss  the  subject  of  Bible  study. 

"  Much  is  being  said  in  these  days  about  the  methods  of 
Bible  study.  What  method  shall  we  adopt  ?  is  the  question 
asked.  Is  there  one  method,  and  are  all  other  methods  to 
be  cast  aside  ?  Will  two  men  ever  do  the  same  thing  best  in 
the  same  way  ?  Is  it  not  true  that  a  method  helpful  to  one 
man,  or  set  of  men,  is  often  ruinous  to  another  man,  or  set 
of  men  ?  Shall  we  not  seek  independence,  not  only  of  spirit, 
but  as  well  of  method,  of  any  and  every  method?  The 
word  method  is  too  frequently  but  another  term  for  the 
word  rut.  And  yet  there  must  be  method.  He  who  works 
without  plan  and  aimlessly  will  find  his  results  without 
form,  and  void,  chaotic.  But  it  is  not  my  purpose  at  this 
time  to  discuss  methods. 


56  The  Probi^em  of  Method. 

**Wewho  are  gathered  here  to-day  are  Christian  men. 
There  is  in  the  mind  of  each  one  of  us  a  firm  purpose,  or  at 
least  a  strong  desire,  to  know  the  Word  of  God.  I  have  in 
mind  both  kinds  of  knowledge — that  spiritual  grasp  of  the 
sacred  book,  that  personal  experience  of  certain  truths, 
which  will  enable  us  to  make  practical  use  of  the  same  in 
the  hand-to-hand  work  of  the  street  or  inquiry  room  ;  that 
knowledge  the  ability  to  use  which  measures  our  strength 
in  Christian  work.  This  kind  of  knowledge  does  not  come 
at  once  ;  the  memorizing  of  verses  here  and  there  will  not 
bring  it.  It  is  the  highest  of  possessions.  It  is  the  deepest 
of  all  knowledge.  It  will  come  in  time  to  the  child  of  God, 
but  to  him  only  in  time — after  long  and  persistent  effort. 

"  But  back  of  this  spiritual  grasp,  or  underneath  it,  there 
is  a  knowledge  of  another  kind.  Must  I,  for  lack  of  a  bet- 
ter term,  call  it  intellectual?  The  two  make  one;  they 
must  not  be  separated  ;  either  without  the  other  will  inevit- 
ably lead  to  error. 

"  An  intellectal  grasp  of  the  Scriptures  will  lead  to  what? 
A  mastery,  so  far  as  possible,  of  the  details  of  Bible  history; 
a  putting  together  of  this  and  that  event ;  an  investigation 
of  the  great  epochs  ;  a  study  of  the  great  characters ;  an  in- 
quiry into  the  cause  of  things  as  they  are  represented  in 
Scripture  and  their  relations  to  each  other.  An  apprecia- 
tion of  the  literary  forms  of  the  various  books  ;  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  circumstances  under  which  they  had  their  ori- 
gin ;  the  purpose  each  was  to  subserve  ;  the  people  for 
whom  they  were  originally  written  ;  their  history.  An  abil- 
ity to  interpret ;  to  apply  principles  of  interpretation  com- 
mon to  all  writings ;  a  familiarity  with  those  special  princi- 
ples demanded  by  the  unique  character  of  the  Bible.  It  is 
for  this  kind  of  knowledge — critical,  it  may  be  called,  yet 
necessary  to  a  conservation  of  the  truth ;    intellectual,  yet 


The  Problem  of  Method. 


57 


forming  the  basis  of  the  deepest  spiritual  work — that  we 
who  are  here  to-day  ought  to  strive. 

'  *  The  work  before  us  is  stupendous.  The  field  is  an  in- 
exhaustible one.  An  intellectual  grasp  of  the  contents  of 
the  Scripture  is  not  something  which  falls  into  one's  hands 
without  putting  forth  of  eifort.  Effort,  indeed,  may  be  put 
forth,  and  the  result  not  come.  But  the  least  one  can  do  is 
to  make  the  effort. 

"What,  now,  shall  be  the  character  of  the  effort  put 
forth  ?  It  is  this  which  will  determine  the  character  of  the 
results.  Describe  to  me  the  effort  which  at  the  present  time 
is  being  made  in  any  given  section  or  by  any  individual, 
and  I  will  calculate  for  you  the  results,  which  are  being  at- 
tained in  that  section  or  by  that  individual.  Everything 
turns  on  the  effort,  and  is  it  not  true  a  single  word  may  be 
found  which  will  describe  the  ideal  effort,  and  that  word  is 
systematic?' 

"  Now,  let  me  ask  this  question  :  Has  the  effort  which 
you  have  been  making  all  through  life  toward  a  comprehen- 
sion of  the  facts  and  truth  of  Holy  Writ  been  a  systematic 
one  ?  Are  you  ready  to  answer  yes  ?  Do  you  not  like  to 
confess  that  it  is  not  ?  Before  committing  yourself  one  way 
or  another,  before  confessing  that  you  have  not  been  system- 
atic, before  dogmatically  asserting,  at  the  risk  of  being 
wrong,  that  you  have  been  systematic,  let  us  inquire  what  is 
meant  by  'systematic' 

"  Have  you  had  a  clearly  defined  purpose  in  your  work, 
and  has  that  purpose  been  a  correct  one?  The  stream  never 
rises  higher  than  the  fountain.  Your  work  will  never  reach 
higher  than  3'our  ideal.  How  is  it  now  ?  Is  the  ideal  in 
your  case  a  low  one  ?  What  have  you  been  aiming  at  ? 
There  are  some  who  study  merely  to  satisfy  themselves. 
They  are  always  taking  in,  always  adding  to  their  store  of 
knowledge.     This  knowledge,  great  though  it  may  be  in 


58  Thk  PROBI.KM  OF  Method. 

amount,  valuable  though  it  may  be  in  character,  is  of  little 
or  no  practical  value  to  those  who  possess  or  those  about 
them.  To  this  class  belong  many  of  those  who  are  known 
as  scholars.  Am  I  here  to  speak  against  scholarship — 
against  the  most  critical  and  painstaking  investigation  ? 
God  forbid.  But  is  it  not  true  that  from  the  men  who  have 
this  great  knowledge,  the  men  whom  God  has  given  the  op- 
portunity to  obtain  it,  we  have  a  right  to  expect — yes,  de- 
mand—  something  by  way  of  return?  There  are  on  the 
floor  from  various  quarters  of  our  country  men  of  the  ripest 
and  highest  scholarship  in  biblical  studies.  Shall  they  not 
open  up  their  hearts  and  come  down  from  their  lofty  pedes- 
tal and  take  an  interest  in  the  promulgating  of  intelligent 
ideas  concerning  this  sacred  volume?  The  time  has  passed 
when  scholarship  should  be  divorced  from  popular  work, 
when  men  who  have  great  stores  of  knowledge  shall  stand 
aloof  from  the  masses. 

*  *  But  there  are  some  who  go  the  other  extreme — they  are 
always  giving  out,  never  filling  up.  In  the  treatment  of  a 
Scripture  passage  it  is  entirely  sufficient  to  ascertain  what 
seems  to  be  the  great  lesson  inculcated  and  to  present  this 
lesson  to  thOvSe  who  are  dependent  on  them  for  the  bread  of 
life  without  any  effort,  either  to  master  for  themselves  the 
substance  of  the  Holy  Scripture  or  to  help  others  to  do  so.' 
These  people  are  always  applying,  seldom  studying,  never 
teaching  the  sacred  word.  And  what  do  they  apply?  Their 
own  ideas,  not  the  Bible.  The  pupils  may  remain  under 
their  charge  for  many  years  and  be  none  the  wiser  as  to  the 
real  contents  of  the  Bible.  My  friends,  what  is  our  great 
purpose  in  this  study  ?  Do  we  belong  to  either  of  the  classes 
I  have  briefly  described  ?  If  so,  we  are  laboring  from  a 
point  of  view  which  is  inconsistent  with  a  systematic  Bible 
study.  What,  then,  should  be  our  purpose  ?  To  know  the 
Bible,  book  by  book  ;  to  become  saturated  with  its  thought 


The  Problem  of  Method.  59 

and  its  spirit,  and  then  to  lead  others  to  the  same  knowl- 
edge. The  more  God  has  allowed  us  to  know  of  its  won- 
derful truths  the  greater  the  revSponsibility  which  rests  upon 
us.  But,  however  much  or  however  little  we  may  know,  it 
should  be  our  great  aim  to  teach  that,  and  not  something- 
else  as  a  substitute.  Why  will  men,  teachers  and  preach- 
ers, with  a  self-conceit  which  is  incomprehensible,  imagine 
that  their  thoughts  about  the  Bible,  their  deductions  from 
its  pages,  are  of  more  value,  are  more  greatly  to  be  desired, 
than  the  precious  words  themselves  ?  The  world  is  starving- 
for  the  Bible.  A  systematic  study  will  be  one  grounded  on 
the  principle  that  the  sacred  word  itself  is  to  be  studied  in 
such  a  manner  that  it  may  again  be  taught  to  those  wha 
need  it,  and  not  man's  feeble  ideas  concerning  it.  Have 
you  in  mind,  my  brother,  the  right  purpose  ? 

"  But  your  effort,  to  be  vSystematic,  must  be  submitted  to- 
another  test.  Has  it  been  in  accordance  with  a  carefully 
wrought-out  plan  ? 

"  Will  you  recall  the  steady  growth,  the  wonderful  pro* 
grCvSs  of  Israelitish  history  from  the  smallest  beginning, 
through  trial  and  trouble,  then  victory  and  possession — the 
organization  of  the  nation  by  Samuel,  the  establishment  of 
the  monarchy  by  David  ;  its  disruption  at  the  death  of  Sol- 
omon ;  apostasy  and  sin  followed  by  the  destruction  of  the 
northern  nation  ;  again  the  apostasy  and  sin  and  the  long 
captivity ;  the  return,  almost  pitiable  in  contrast  with  the 
former  glory,  the  bickering  and  strife,  the  gradual  dying- 
out  of  the  national  fire,  that  divine  inspiration  which  had 
burned  for  so  many  centuries  ?  Has  your  plan  of  study  in- 
cluded a  careful  comparison  of  these  periods,  their  relation 
to  each  other,  and  the  special  part  played  by  each  in  the 
great  drama — the  world's  redemption  ? 

' '  With  your  knowledge  of  Israelitish  history  thus  gath- 
ered and  systematized,  have  you  gone  back  again  to  the  be- 


60  The  Probi^km  of  Method. 

ginning  and  taken  up  the  study  of  the  prophecy  (inter- 
woven so  closely  with  that  history  as  almost  to  be  identi- 
fied with  it),  and  followed,  generation  by  generation,  cen- 
tury by  century,  the  growing  fabric  of  the  revelation  of 
God  ;  the  lines,  branching  out  in  this  (direction  and  that, 
now  dim,  now  resplendent  in  glory;  new  lines  starting  up 
and  moving  side  by  side  with  the  old,  until  all  lines,  old 
and  new,  converge  in  the  life  work  and  death  of  the  Christ  ? 

' '  The  man  who  has  not  studied  prophecy  in  this  way, 
noting  carefully  the  origin  and  development  of  each  of  the 
many  ideas  which,  taken  together,  proclaim  the  coming  of 
a  deliverance  and  Deliverer,  a  salvation  and  a  Savior  ;  the 
man  who  has  not  connected  the  prophetic  utterances  with 
the  great  events  of  history  and  personal  experience  from 
which  they  sprang  and  of  which  they  form  a  part,  has  he 
done  the  work  worthy  of  being  called  systematic  ? 

' '  Has  your  plan  made  provision  also  for  the  great  books 
of  Old  Testament  philosophy.  Job,  Proverbs  and  Ecclesi- 
astes  ;  for  that  collection  of  laws,  the  most  wonderful  the 
world  has  ever  seen  ?  Have  you  ever  made  a  systematic 
study  of  that  most  sacred  and  fascinating  of  all  subjects,  the 
life  of  Christ ;  or  the  life  and  the  writings  of  the  Apostle 
Paul?  The  question  is,  my  friends,  are  we  studying  ac- 
cording to  a  plan  which  includes  all  these  subjects  and  many 
more,  in  an  order  which  will  enable  us  most  clearly  to  grasp 
their  meaning,  and  the  mutual  relation  which  they  sustain 
to  each  other  ?  Have  you  any  plan  at  all ;  Is  it  perhaps 
possible  that  some  of  us  have  been  moving  around  in  a  cir- 
cle, and  not  forward  ?  Are  some  of  us  feeding  from  hand 
to  mouth,  not  knowing,  not  even  caring  what  is  to  come 
next?  Without  a  plan,  flexible  perhaps,  yet  definite,  there 
can  be  no  systematic  study. 

"But  again:  Our  work,  if  it  is  to  be  in  the  best  and 
strictest  sense  systematic,  must  be  independent.    A  machine 


The  Probi^em  of  Method.  61 

may  be  systematic,  but  the  human  mind,  if  its  system  is 
only  that  of  a  machine,  would  better  be  uns3^stematic.  The 
student  makes  no  real  progress  who  is  satisfied  with  having 
learned  what  some  one  else  has  said  concerning  the  mean- 
ing of  a  verse  or  the  scope  of  a  passage  ;  who  always  fol- 
lows ;  who  is  always  leaning  upon  another.  Such  a  student 
crams  ;  he  does  not  digest.  Is  craming  consistent  either 
with  any  true  purpose  or  any  prepared  plan  ?  Such  work 
is  done  for  the  moment,  not  for  all  time.  Is  such  work 
honest,  not  to  speak  of  its  being  S3^stematic  ?  The  lack  of 
independence  explains  a  multitude  of  failures  under  our 
present  system,  admirable  as  it  is.  Many  of  us,  strangely 
enough,  suppose  that  we  need  only  read  the  notes  published 
in  any  sheet,  or  perhaps  only  the  practical  lessons  suggested, 
and  in  time  we  will  come  to  know  the  Bible.  This  is  wrong, 
partly  because-  these  notes  are  in  too  many  cases  the  merest 
trash,  and  partly  because,  even  when  most  excellent,  they 
are  not  properly  studied.  The  Bible  student  who  feels  that 
the  preparation  of  his  Sunday  school  lesson  is  all  the  Bible 
study  which  he  need  undertake,  who  is  satisfied  to  study 
that  lesson  as  he  would  be  ashamed  to  study  a  lesson  for 
the  school  room,  often,  oh,  how  often,  makes  an  out-and- 
out  failure.  Crutches  are  freely  furnished  us  these  days — 
so  freely  indeed,  that  too  many  of  us  have  forgotten  how  to 
stand  on  our  own  feet.  If  our  work  is  to  be  systematic,  it 
must  be  planned  and  executed  independently,  and  not  in 
slavish  dependence  upon  some  one  man  or  set  of  men. 

*'  A  systematic  study  of  the  Bible  will  be  a  logical,  philo- 
sophical study  of  it.  It  will  not  be  the  mere  memorizing  of 
a  list  of  names  and  dates  ;  the  naming  of  the  most  impor- 
tant cities,  villages,  rivers  and  mountains.  It  will  not  be  a 
study  of  a  verse  here  and  a  passage  there  without  consider- 
ing that  verse  or  passage  in  the  light  of  the  context.  It 
will  not  be  the  citing,  as  from  heaven,  of  words  quoted  by 


62  The  ProbIvEm  of  Method. 

an  inspired  writer  from  the  mouth  of,  perhaps,  Satan 
himself.  The  attempt  to  exhaust  the  meaning  of  a  verse, 
without  first  a  study  of  the  chapter  of  which  the  verse  is  a 
part,  or  of  a  chapter  without  first  a  study  of  the  book  of 
which  the  chapter  is  a  part — such  an  attempt  is  illogical  ;  it 
is  more,  it  is  absurd.  There  must  be  logical  order  ;  there 
must  be  consecution,  connection,  or  the  work  will  be  defec- 
tive. We  must  know  w^ho  it  was,  where  it  was  and  when 
it  was  ;  but  we  must  know  more,  if  it  is  possible  to  know 
it.  The  effort  will  be  comparatively  a  failure  if  we  do  not 
also  discover  why  it  was.     But  I  must  hasten. 

"Our  study,  to  be  systematic,  must  be  comprehensive. 
Master}^  of  details  is  needed,  yet  also  mastery  of  the  subject 
as  a  whole.  '  It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  for  a  moment  that 
Bible  study  consists  in  the  study  of  isolated  texts,  or  in  the 
study  of  single  chapters  ;  or  even  in  the  study  of  the  entire 
book.  A  man  might  study  verses  all  his  life  and  know 
comparatively  little  of  the  Bible.  Besides,  the  man  who 
studies  onl}^  verses  does  one-sided  imperfect,  narrow  work. 
As  has  been  said,  he  w^ho  does  not  have  in  mind  the  entire 
book,  and  from  this  standpoint  do  his  work,  does  not  and 
cannot  appreciate  the  full  force  of  a  single  verse  contained 
in  that  book.  The  same  thing  holds  good  in  a  higher 
sphere.  It  is  not  sufficient  merely  to  have  a  comprehensive 
knowledge  of  a  given  book.  Although  we  may  know  the 
contents,  the  analysis,  the  occasion,  purpose,  author,  etc., 
etc.,  of  this  book,  there  is  still  something  to  be  ascertained. 
What  ?  The  place  of  that  book  in  the  Bible  as  a  whole  ; 
its  relation  to  other  books ;  the  relation  of  its  contents  to 
the  contents  of  the  entire  Bible,  to  the  entire  plan  of  God 
for  the  salvation  of  men.  How  comparatively  contemptible, 
after  all,  is  the  study  of  mere  verses  !  How  much  he  loses 
who  satisfies  himself  that,  having  done  this,  he  has  done 
all  !      We  should   be  close,   critical   students  of   a  verse ; 


The  PROBI.BM  OF  Method.  63 

we  should  be  searching,  analytical  students  of  a  book  ;  we 
should  also  be  broad,  comprehensive  general  students  of  the 
Bible.  Let  our  work,  therefore,  whatever  else  it  is,  be  a 
comprehensive  work,  for,  unless  it  is  comprehensive,  it  will 
not  be  systematic. 

''Our  work  must  be  one  which  will  lead  to  definite  re- 
sults. When  one  has  finished  a  course  of  study  in  any  de- 
partment he  will  surely  be  disappointed  and  dissatisfied  with 
the  subject,  his  teacher  and  himself  if  he  is  not  able  to  put 
his  hands  on  certain  definite  results.  Now,  the  Bible  is  a 
small  book.  It  is,  we  all  believe,  an  inexhaustible  book  ; 
and  yet  the  work  of  mastering  this  book  is,  in  one  sense,  a 
very  definite  one.  With  a  plan  of  study  looking  towards 
thorough  work  and  definite  results,  the  facts,  the  purpose, 
the  teachings  of  book  after  book  will  come  into  our  posses- 
sion ;  one  principle  after  another  will  become  familiar  ;  one 
period  after  another  will  gradually  develop  itself  before  us. 

"Here,  alas!  is  where  failure  stares  most  of  us  in  the 
face.  We  study,  and  we  study,  and  we  study  ;  in  infancy, 
in  childhood,  in  youth,  in  manhood,  and  in  old  age  ;  and 
yet,  oh,  how  many  of  us  must  confess  it,  we  accomplish  so 
little,  the  results  are  so  small,  that  in  the  pain  of  soul  and 
torture  of  heart  we  cry  out  in  our  disappointment.  Am  I 
wrong  when  I  say  that  the  actual  Bible  knowledge  of  the 
average  Christian  is  not  one-tenth  what  it  ougnt  to  be  ? 
Not  one-tenth  of  what  it  might  be  if  a  more  systematic 
study  were  in  vogue.  Pardon  me,  I  beseech  you  ;  but  when 
I  read  the  hundreds  of  letters  which  are  coming  to  me  from 
all  parts  of  the  world — letters  from  Christian  men  and  wo- 
men, teachers,  preachers  and  missionaries,  letters  contain- 
ing the  most  pitiable  confessions  of  ignorance,  where  no  ig- 
norance should  have  existed,  letters  which  tell  of  yearnings 
for  a  better  knowledge  of  the  sacred  truth — my  heart  is 
filled  with  indignation  that  this  should  be  so,  for  a  fearful 


64  The  Problkm  of  Method. 

responsibility  rests  somewhere ;  and  then  there  comes  the 
feeling  of  sadness  that  the  experience  of  these  individuals 
is  being  repeated  in  the  case  of  so  many  more.  Put  the 
question  to  yourself.  What  are  the  results  of  your  eight, 
ten,  twenty  or  thirty  years  of  Bible  study?  With  how 
many  of  the  sixty-six  books  are  you  even  tolerably  familiar  ? 
How  many  of  them  can  you  think  through  from  beginning 
to  end,  recalling,  in  a  flash,  the  substance  of  the  entire 
book  ?  On  how  many  of  the  sixty-six  books  would  you  be 
willing  to  offer  yourself  for  an  examination  similar  to  that 
required  of  the  average  freshman  in  college  on  Homer? 
How  many  of  us  here  to-night  could  pass  a  really  respecta- 
ble examination  on  the  life  of  our  lyord  ?  Definite  results, 
definite  results,  we  must  have,  and  if  our  study  does  not 
bring  them  we  may  confidently  believe  that  somehow, 
somewhere,  something  is  wrong.  Surely  no  study  deserves 
the  name  systematic,  no  stud}^  can  be  systematic  which  does 
not  produce  them. 

' '  A  word  now  in  conclusion  : 

' '  Have  you  a  clear  and  definite  purpose  in  mind  as  to 
what  you  are  studying  for?  As  to  what  you  are  trying  to 
accomplish  ? 

'  *  Have  a  sharply  outlined  plan  in  which  provision  is 
made  for  the  intelligent  study,  one  by  one,  of  the  great 
epochs,  the  great  characters,  the  great  doctrines,  and  above 
all  that  great  life,  the  life  of  Christ  ? 

' '  Have  you  decided  that  you  will  think  for  yourself,  that 
you  will  use  the  mind  which  God  has  given  you,  employing 
aids  and  assistance  only  when  it  is  necessary  and  wise  ? 

* '  Is  your  study  in  accordance  with  the  great  principles 
which  underly  the  working  of  the  human  mind  ?  Are  you 
logical  ?     Is  there  order,  connection,  consecution  ? 

' '  Is  your  work  comprehensive  ?  Are  you  careful  not  to 
lose  yourself  in  a  wilderness  of  detail ;  forgetting  the  great 


The  PROBI.EM  OF  Method.  .   65 

purpose  and  the  broad  plan  with  which   you  began  your 
work  ? 

*'  Is  your  work  producing  results?  At  the  end  of  every 
month,  or  three  months,. or  six  months,  can  you  feel  that, 
you  have  made  progress  ?  Are  the  books  of  the  Bible  com- 
ing, one  by  one,  into  your  possession  ?  Are  you  beginning 
to  look  forward  to  the  time  when  every  book  will,  in  some 
sense,  have  been  mastered  ?  How  is  it  ?  Are  these  things 
so  ?     Your  work  then  is  systematic. 

"This  book,  your  book,  my  book,  God's  book — this 
book,  I  say,  we  must  study  ;  we  must  study  it  in  no  other 
way  than  did  the  Incarnate  Word  Himself.  Let  us  take  Him 
as  our  model,  in  this  as  in  all  work.  We  must  study  it  rev- 
erently, for  it  is  divine  ;  study  it  historically,  for  it  is  hu- ' 
man  ;  and  study  it  systematically,  for  we  were  created  in 
the  image  of  God,  and  endowed  with  minds,  minds  which 
our  Creator  intended  we  should  use. 

"  And  in  such  a  work,  undertaken  by  the  intelligent  men 
of  our  day,  entered  into  wnth  such  a  spirit  and  pursued  in 
such  a  manner,  with  God  Himself  over  all  and  in  all,  it  is 
not  for  the  tongue  of  man  to  describe,  nor  for  the  mind  of 
man  to  comprehend  what  would  be  accomplished. —  [Lec- 
ture by  Dr.  W.  R.  Harper,  at  Plyjnouth  Church,  hidianap- 
oils. 

2.  A  reconstruction  of  education  must  come  in  this 
country,  and  the  best  methods  of  character-education  be 
made  universal.  —  {Review  of  Reviezvs,  p.  68 1,  Dec.  i8p6. 

3.  She  (Switzerland)  owes  her  admirable  system  of  laws 
to  'h^r  methods  of  education. — [Revzeza  of  Reviews,  p.  682, 
Dec.  i8g6. 

The  almost   universal  education  of   children  under  the 
Froebel  methods  seems  to  be  close  at  hand  ;    it  is  the  new 
>  movement  of  the  age.     But  Froebel' s  methods  need  evolu- 


66  The  Problem  of  Method. 

tion  and  expansion  to  meet  the  republican  spirit  of  to-day 
in  the  Pan-American  field.  Among  his  methods,  which 
merit  a  fuller  expression  in  our  child  schools  of  ethical  cul- 
ture, we  may  note  : 

a.  Educational  walks. 

This  plan  belonged  to  the  methods  of  both  Pestalozzi  and 
Froebel.  These  teachers  took  their  pupils  to  places  for  the 
study  of  local  history,  to  the  flowers  for  botany,  to  the  rocks 
for  geology,  and  to  nature  for  all  nature's  lessons  of  life, 
etc. 

b.  Froebel' s  plan  of  associating  children  with  little  ani- 
mals and  birds,  in  order  to  teach  them  the  brotherhood  of 
all  creatures,  the  oneness  of  life,  and  how  to  treat  dumb 
animals,  has  found  illustration  in  many  kindergarten 
schools,  but  in  some  places  has  not  been  regarded  as  a  very 
essential  feature  of  his  method.  But  this  is  an  essential 
Tuethod  of  heart  education,  etc. 

c.  Patriotic  education. 

This  is  finding  a  place  in  most  American  kindergarten 
schools.  As  in  Switzerland,  the  children  march  with  the 
flag,  and  sing  the  songs  of  Justice  and  Liberty,  etc. 

d.  Teaching  of  self-control  is  an  essential  part  of  the 
Froebel  method,  and  in  no  country  is  this  moral  development 
more  needed  than  in  ours.  "  To  give  firmness  to  the  will, 
to  quicken  it,  and  to  make  it  pure,  strong,  and  enduring,  in 
a  life  of  pure  humanity,,,  says  Froebel,  *'  is  the  chief  con- 
cern in  instruction  and  in  the  school,"   etc. 

e.  Stories  of  imagination.  We  must  have  a  new  litera- 
ture for  children  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  educational  re- 
vival, after  the  Swiss  and  German  school  methods,  which 
follow  the  Hebrew  parables.  Tales  of  Indians,  bear-hunts, 
and  of  boys  who  were  men  before  their  time,  have  had  their 
day  of  our  children's  reading.    The  time  has  come  for  a  large 


Thk  Problem  of  Method.  67 

place  in  the  education  of  the  creative  imagination   for  the 
imagination  largely  governs  life,  etc. 

f.  Kindergartens  for  friendless  children.  The  lich  need 
kindergartens  as  well  as  the  poor,  for  this  form  of  educa- 
tion is  the  soul's  school.  But  we  believe  that  no  other  char- 
ity represents  so  much  in  life  as  the  kindergarten,  for  it 
stands  for  the  moral  evolution  of  life  from  the  beginning  ;  it 
is  the  gospel  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  of  beatitudes  put 
into  the  heart  and  habits  of  the  child  by  the  natural  way  of 
the  playground,  through  the  exercise  of  the  creative  facul- 
ties.—  \Ki7idergarttn  Age,  Review  of  Reviews,  Dec,  18^6. 

4.  What  has  inductive,  statistical,  or  scientific  child- 
study  accomplished  thus  far  that  would  suggest  modifica- 
tions in  the  present  curricula  or  methods  of  teaching  in  our 
schools  ? 

How  may  the  results  of  child-study  be  best  embodied  in 
the  curricula  and  methods  of  teaching  in  our  schools  as  rap- 
idly as  they  become  reasonably  well  established? — \_The  Bicl- 
letin,   Vincennes,  hid.,  Jan.,  iSg'j. 

5.  Probably  no  person  who  has  undertaken  the  subject 
of  child-study  has  done  so  much  to  interest  the  average 
teacher  as  Earl  Barnes.  He  has  a  method  of  study  all  his 
ow^i,  which  he  has  used  industriously  as  may  be  seen  when 
one  reads  his  Studies  in  Education  now  being  published.  A 
sample  of  the  Barnes  method  will  illustrate  : 

Once  a  mother  gave  a  child  for  a  birthday  present — the 
child  w^as  just  6  years  old — a  beautiful  box  of  paints.  In 
the  afternoon  while  the  mother  w^as  busy  in  another  room, 
the  child  painted  all  the  parlor  chairs  so  as  to  make  them  look 
nice,  and  then  called  out:  "  O  mamma,  come  and  see  how 
pretty  1  have  made  the  parlor."  The  paint  could  not  be 
washed  off  and  vSO  the  chairs  were  spoiled.  What  would 
3^ou  have  said  or  done  had  you  been  the  child's  mother? 


6S  The  Problem  of  Method. 

One  day  the  teacher  left  the  room  and  while  she  was 
gone,  several  children  in  the  room  began  to  make  a  noise. 
The  teacher  heard  the  noise  as  she  came  back,  but  did  not 
know  which  children  were  out  of  order,  and  none  of  the 
class  would  tell  her.  So  she  kept  the  whole  class  in  after 
school.     Was  the  punishment  just  or  unjust,  and  why? 

Thousands  of  children  were  given  these  and  like  stories 
for  language  exercises.  The  papers  were  sent  to  Prof.  Barnes 
who  made  a  careful  study  of  each  set. —  \The  Bulletin^  Vin- 
cenfies,  Ind.,Jan.^  iSgy. 

6.  These  illustrations,  though  long,  illustrate  the  method 
of  presenting  the  story  of  Dante  to  children.  It  is  translat- 
ing it  into  their  own  experience. — [/*.  ^5  of  Leaflet  12. 

7.  ''Should  a  Divinity  School  Teach  the  Student  What 
to  Believe,  or  How^  to  Think  ?  " 

* '  The  answer  which  should  be  given  to  this  question  by  a 
divinity  school  is  not  differe^it  from  the  answer  which  should 
be  given  by  any  other  sort  of  school,  as,  for  example,  by  a 
school  of  law  or  medicine.  It  is  necessary  that  the  lawyer, 
at  the  very  beginning  of  his  practice,  have  a  mind  well 
stored  with  knowledge  concerning  laws  and  precedents  and 
courts,  else  woe  be  to  his  clients.  It  is  necessary  also  that 
he  have  a  mind  well  trained  to  think,  else  woe  to  his  clients. 
The  same  two-fold  preparation  is  necessary  for  the  physi- 
cian. There  w^as  once  a  sy.stem  of  medicine  the  professors 
of  which  proposed  to  deal  simply  wdth  facts  easily  ascer- 
tained and  catalogued,  to  treat  the  symptoms  of  disease 
with  little  reference  to  its  causes,  to  have  remedies  set  down 
in  the  book  appropriate  to  each  ache  and  pain  and  fever  and 
chill,  and  thus  to  dispense  with  thought.  Students  were 
prepared  in  a  few  months  to  practice  medicine  in  this  way. 
A  frightful  record  of  failure  to  cure  soon  evinced  the  folly 
of  this  education.     But  it  would  have  been  equally  foolish 


The  ProbIvKm  of  Method. 


69 


to  send  the  young  physician  into  the  world  with  no  prepa- 
ration except  the  mastery  of  the  laws  of  reasoning.  It  is  even 
more  necessary  for  the  minister  than  for  the  lawyer  and  the 
physician  to  be  acquainted  with  a  wide  range  of  truth  and 
also  to  be  able  to  employ  it  thoughtfull}^  and  wisely.  To 
administer  error  to  his  people  is  as  much  more  hurtful  than 
to  administer  poison  as  the  soul  is  of  greater  value  than  the 
body,  and  as  eternity  is  longer  than  time.  To  administer 
truth  to  them  is  the  one  function  of  his  office,  since  it  is 
only  by  means  of  the  truth  that  God  will  bring  them  to  re- 
pentance and  afterward  perfect  them  in  holiness  :  * '  Sanc- 
tify them  through  the  truth  :  thy  word  is  truth."  Yet 
truth,  to  be  effectual,  must  be  presented  in  reasoned  forms  ; 
the  minister  must  use  it  so  as  to  convince  and  to  persuade  ;  he 
must  interpret  it  to  the  mind  and  to  the  heart;  he  must  adapt 
it  to  the  various  characters,  to  the  experience,  and  to  the 
wants  of  his  hearers  ;  and  hence  he  must  think. 

"  I  conclude,  therefore,  that  it  is  the  function  of  a  divinity 
school  to  teach  both  what  to  believe  and  how  to  think. 

''But  let  us  assume  for  a  moment  that  the  chief  aim  of  the 
divinity  school  should  be  to  make  thinkers  of  students.  Let 
us  then  ask  how  this  can  best  be  done.  Various  methods 
have  been  employed,  and  I  request  you  to  look  at  them. 

' '  First.  The  education  which  appeals  chiefly  to  the  mem- 
ory has  often  been  tried,  and  it  is  still  in  favor  with  many. 
It  prevails  in  England  in  those  schools  which  exist  for  the 
purpose  of  training  young  men  for  the  civil  service  examin- 
ations. It  prevails  in  this  country  in  a  large  number  of  pri- 
vate schools  which  secure  patronage  by  guaranteeing  to  fit 
any  student  for  college  in  a  given  length  of  time,  often  very 
brief.  In  a  school  of  this  kind  there  is  a  large  body  of 
teachers,  each  one  of  whom  has  certain  hours  of  work  in 
the  class  room  and  certain  other  hours  of  private  tutoring, 
during  which  he  communicates  to  the  student  the  tasks  of 


70         The  Problem  of  Method. 

the  coming  day.     The  student  does  not  acquire  ;    he  only 
receives. 

' '  Such  an  appeal  to  the  memor}^  once  constituted  the  prin- 
cipal function  of  the  teacher,  and  this  method  of  education 
was  predominant  in  the  lower  schools  of  the  whole  world 
throughout  the  seventeenth  century,  and  a  large  part  of  the 
eighteenth.  It  was  reinforced  by  the  daily  use  of  the  rod. 
Boys  and  girls  were  prepared  for  life  as  geese  are  prepared 
for  the  market  in  Strassburg,  where  the}^  are  kept  in  cages 
and  crammed  wath  food  through  a  pipe  thrust  down  their 
necks.  This  was  supposed  to  be  the  only  successful  method 
of  making  thinkers  ;  but  we  now  know  that  the  student  re- 
sembled a  goose  not  only  while  he  was  subjected  to  it,  but 
also  afterward  so  long  as  he  lived. 

''Are  there  any  schools  in  which  men  are  trained  for  the 
the  ministry  chiefly  by  the  communication  of  truths  to  be 
accepted  with  little  regard  to  their  systematic  arrangement 
or  their  relation  to  human  reason  and  with  no  requirement 
of  independent  research?  I  could  name  several.  Their 
supporters  believe  that  the  method  which  prevails  in  them 
produces  trained  thinkers.  There  is  no  ground,  however, 
on  which  it  can  be  justified,  and  it  must  prove  as  inadequate 
in  a  divity  school  as  elsewhere. 

'  'Another  method  of  teaching  men  to  think  is  that  of  specu- 
lation. Its  native  home  is  German}^,  that  land  of  great 
realities  and  great  dreams ;  but  like  many  other  natives  of 
Germany  it  has  emigrated,  and  other  countries  are  now  re- 
ceiving whatever  good  or  evil  it  has  to  give.  Look  back  at 
the  great  outburst  of  pantheistic  philosophy  under  Fichte, 
Shelling,  and  Hegel,  a  storm  which  bore  everything  before 
it,  and  drew  into  its  vortex  every  faculty  of  philosophy  in 
the  German  universities.  No  professor  was  called  a  thinker 
who  opposed  its  course,  and  any  professor  was  reckoned  as 
a  thinker  if  he  could  expound  and  extend  these  speculations. 


The  Problem  of  Method.  71 

Students  rushed  in  thousands  to  the  lectures  of  such  men, 
confident  that  they  were  being  taught  to  think.  This  is 
but  one  example  which  might  be  produced.  The  history  of 
theological  education  is  especially  full  of  them  ;  for  theolog- 
ical faculties  of  Germany  have  been  swept  off  their  feet  re- 
peatedly by  overflowing  floods  of  speculation  which  have 
had  "  their  little  day  and  ceased  to  be." 

"But  is  there  no  difference  between  a  theorizer  and  a 
thinker  ?  The  theorizer  has  his  office  in  the  world  ;  he  sug- 
gests many  false  things  and  some  true  ones  :  he  stimulates 
the  imagination  and  provokes  discussion  ;  he  is  the  Will-o'- 
the-wisp  of  science,  dancing  forward  to  lure  it  to  regions 
hitherto  dim  and  unknown,  but  preferring  to  hold  his  course 
over  the  marshes  and  jungles  where  it  is  dangerous  to  follow. 
The  thinker  has  a  far  higher  place.  The  thinker  is  the  man 
who  thinks  soberly,  justly,  profoundly  ;  who  can  distin- 
guish the  proposition  that  is  proved  from  the  proposition 
that  is  only  probable,  and  this  again  from  the  proposition 
that  is  only  possible  or  certainly  false.  If  the  divinity  fac- 
ulty spends  a  great  deal  of  its  time  in  teaching  the  gorgeous 
theories  which  have  come  and  gone  in  the  past,  or  which 
dazzle  the  eyes  of  the  visionary  in  the  present,  it  will  not 
make  thinkers,  but,  on  the  contrary,  will  send  into  the  pul- 
pits of  the  world  a  multitude  of  speculators  and  dreamers  to 
dazzle  their  hearers,  but  not  to  enlighten  them. 

''Once  more.  Educators  have  sometimes  supposed  that 
students  could  be  trained  to  think  by  dwelling  chiefly  on  the 
laws  of  thought,  the  science  of  logic,  the  method  of  detect- 
ing fallacies.  This  was  the  theory  of  the  middle  ages,  and 
even  the  divinity  faculties  of  the  great  universities  taught 
the  logic  of  Aristotle  far  more  diligently  than  the  Bible  or 
the  creed.  This  logic  was  greatly  extended  in  its  range, 
and  became  an  intricate  algebra.  We  study  it  in  our  col- 
leges chiefly  as  a  curiosity  of  history,  devoting  a  month  or 


72  The  ProbIvKm  of  Method. 

six  weeks  to  it ;  but  at  Paris  and  Oxford  and  Bologna  it  re- 
quired years.  The  students  were  usually  candidates  for  the 
priesthood.  What  was  the  result  of  this  excessive  cultiva- 
tion of  the  art  of  reasoning?  The  student  gathered  no  suf- 
ficient materials  on  which  to  exercise  his  art,  so  that,  in 
general,  it  remained  a  mere  art.  At  its  very  best  it  gave 
us  the  old  scholastic  philosophy  and  theology,  which  the 
world  was  already  laughing  to  scorn  before  the  Reforma- 
tion appeared.  It  affected  preaching  disastrously,  for  the 
preacher  who  did  not  interlard  his  sermons  with  its  unintel- 
ligible jargon  was  supposed,  even  by  the  common  people, 
not  to  be  able  to  think,  and  could  not  get  a  hearing.  Try 
to  read  one  of  the  sermons  of  Wiclif,  and  fancy  it  addressed 
to  men  and  women  many  of  whom  did  not  know  the  alpha- 
bet ;  nay,  fancy  it  addressed  to  an  assembly  of  the  greatest 
scholars.  Then,  while  j^ou  are  amazed  that  such  an  appa- 
ratus of  scholastic  logic  was  ever  brought  into  the  pulpit, 
remember  that  Wiclif  was  freer  from  it  than  others  of  his 
age.  Here  is  a  fragment  from  The  Sainf  s  Tragedy,  by 
Kingsly,.  in  which  a  heretic  preacher  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury is  represented  as  imitating  the  sermons  of  friars  which 
he  had  heard : 

"  This  man  shed  blood,  and  by  man  shall  his  blood  be 
shed.  Now  behold  an  argument.  This  man  hath  shed 
blood,  even  Conrad  ;  ergo,  as  he  saith  himself,  ye,  if  ye  are 
men,  shall  shed  his  blood.  Does  he  not  himself  say  ergo  ? 
Hath  he  not  said  ergo,  to  the  poor  saints,  to  your  sons  and 
your  daughters,  whom  he  hath  burned  in  the  fire  to  Moloch? 
*  Krgo,  thou  art  a  heretic'  'Ergo,  thou  shalt  burn.'  Is 
he  not  therefore  convicted  out  of  his  own  mouth  ?  " 

*  *  Much  of  the  preaching  of  the  middle  ages  was  as  tech- 
nical and  idiotic  as  this. 

"A  similar  mistake  was  made  at  a  later  period  in  reference 
to  the  new  logic,  the  iiiductive  viethod  of  reasoning.     Bacon 


Thk  Problem  of  Method.  73 

supposed  that  it  could  be  acquired  and  practiced  by  any 
man,  so  that  he  would  think  safely  and  soundly  by  follow- 
ing its  rules. 

"The  over-valuation  of  the  science  of  logic,  whether  de- 
ductive or  inductive,  has  been  remedied.  But  it  would  be 
possible  for  us  to  substitute  for  the  rules  of  reasoning  in 
general  the  rules  of  reasoning  in  some  limited  field  of  in- 
quiry. We  might  devote  so  much  lime  to  the  methods  of 
astronomical  research  as  to  slight  the  substance  of  astron- 
omy and  leave  the  student  ignorant  of  it.  We  might  devote 
so  much  time  to  the  elements  of  criticism  in  art  and  litera- 
ture as  to  slight  art  and  literature  themselves,  and  leave  the 
student  ignorant  of  them.  We  might  devote  so  much  time 
to  the  criticism  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  as  to  slight 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments  themselves,  and  send  our  stu- 
dents to  the  churches  ignorant  of  these  divine  treasures  of 
knowledge.     Thinkers  would  not  be  made  in  this  way. 

*  *  How  then  shall  we  teach  the  student  to  think  ?  Cer- 
tainly not  by  overlooking  the  laws  of  reasoning  in  general, 
or  in  the  special  fields  of  biblical,  theological,  and  historical 
criticism.  Certainly  not  by  overlooking  the  great  theories 
which  have  arisen  in  the  history  of  the  church.  Certainly 
not  by  neglecting  the  memory.  These  things  have  their 
places  in  any  just  scheme  of  education,  and  the  method 
which  I  shall  recommend  embraces  them  all. 

' '  It  also  unites  the  two  alternatives  presented  in  the  ques- 
sion  before  us,  so  that  they  cease  to  be  alternatives,  and  be- 
come but  parts  of  a  harmonious  whole. 

"Let  us  look  at  the  first  alternative.  The  best  way  to 
teach  a  student  what  to  believe  is  to  present  the  truth  to 
him  in  ordered  form  and  in  the  light  of  reason,  requiring 
him,  at  the  same  time,  to  gain  much  of  it  by  his  own  search- 
ing. None  of  you  will  question  this,  and  I  need  not  dwell 
on  it. 


74  The  Problkm  ofMkthod. 

'  'Let  us  now  look  at  the  second  alternative.  The  best  way 
to  teach  a  student  how  to  think  is  to  present  the  truth  to  him 
in  an  ordered  form  and  in  the  light  of  reason,  requiring  him, 
at  the  same  time,  to  gain  much  of  it  by  his  own  searching. 
This  proposition  may  not  be  quite  so  obvious  as  the  preced- 
ing one,  and  I  shall  spend  a  moment  in  seeking  to  commend  . 
it  to  you. 

"  First  of  all,  it  requires  that  truth  shall  be  presented  in  a 
logical  form,  a  system,  an  organic  and  well-proportioned 
body.  The  truth  is  not  necessarily  science  ;  it  becomes 
science  only  when  it  assumes  such  a  form  as  this  ;  and  when 
it  is  set  forth  as  a  science  it  begets  a  scientific  habit  of 
thought  in  the  student.  He  spends  several  years  in  com- 
muning with  truth  thus  arranged,  and  his  mind  acquires  a 
habit  of  good  arrangement  ;  careless  methods  of  thought  be- 
come odious  to  him  ;  and  when  he  writes  or  preaches  his 
productions  manifest  order,  proportion  and  progress.  More- 
over, growing  accustomed  to  arrange  his  thoughts  system- 
atically, he  soon  learns  to  make  the  system  which  he  con- 
structs a  test  of  thought,  for  he  discovers  that  the  proposi- 
tion which  an  organized  body  of  truth  rejects  and  casts  out 
is  probably  false,  while  the  proposition  to  which  such  a  body 
gives  hospitable  welcome  is  probably  true.  In  this  method 
there  is  an  appeal  to  memory.  But  there  is  also  a  cogent 
appeal  to  thought,  and  such  an  appeal  as  trains  the  mind  to 
think  in  an  orderly  and  sound  manner. 

' '  But  once  more.  My  proposition  requires  that  the  system 
of  truth  be  set  forth  in  the  light  of  reason.  The  grounds 
on  which  it  rests  are  to  be  adduced,  and  also  the  chief  con- 
siderations which  might  be  urged  against  it.  Thus  the 
great  theories  of  Christian  history  will  be  brought  forward. 
But  they  will  not  be  regarded  as  the  chief  subjects  of  study; 
they  will  be  assigned  to  a  subordinate  place,  while  the  truth 
itself  will  be  most  prominent.     Thus  also  an  apparatus  of 


The  Problem  of  Method.  75 

criticism  will  spring  up  and  will  be  used  in  subordination 
to  the  subject  criticised.  In  this  part  of  his  work  the 
teacher  will  take  care  to  cast  upon  his  subject  the  clear  sun- 
light of  reason,  and  not  the  dim  and  deceptive  starlight  of 
sophistry  or  partisan  passion.  He  will  take  care  also  not 
to  permit  his  strong  personalit}^  and  his  great  skill  in  argu- 
ment to  overwhelm  his  students.  He  will  encourage  them 
to  think  independently,  to  differ  from  him  if  they  wish,  and 
to  enter  upon  new  provinces  of  thought  with  zeal  and  con- 
fidence. Sir  William  Hamilton  devoted  one  hour  each 
week  to  conversing  with  his  students  about  any  objections 
and  difficulties  which  his  teachings  had  occasioned  in  their 
minds.  Such  an  exercise  w^ould  be  profitable  if  the  teacher 
should  conduct  it  in  a  fair  and  open  manner,  gladly  recog- 
nizing any  valuable  suggestion  from  the  learners,  and  en- 
couraging them  to  think  for  themselves.  It  would  be  hurt- 
ful if  he  should  be  intolerant  of  criticism  or  too  dominant  in 
his  defense  of  his  own  positions. 

"  Lastly,  the  method  requires  the  student  to  spend  much 
time  in  investigation.  It  does  not  merely  encourage  him  to 
do  so  ;  it  lays  upon  him  a  command  to  do  so  ;  and  it  denies 
him  full  credit  if  he  fails  to  do  so.  The  teacher  can  pre- 
sent to  him  only  the  central  things,  and  he  is  to  gain  other 
things  by  his  own  industry.  Thus  the  divinity  school  eases 
to  be  a  mere  refectory  where  he  nourishes  himself  at  tables 
prepared  for  him,  and  becomes  only  a  gymnasium  where  he 
trains  and  developes  every  faculty  and  power  of  the  mind 
for  ardent  and  skillful  exertion  in  the  ministry  to  which  he 
is  called." —  [By  Professor  Franklhi  JoJuison,  D.  D.,  Univer- 
sity Record,  Chicago. 

8.  It  is  not,  therefore,  in  its  material,  but  in  its  form,  in 
its  method,  in  its  mode  of  knowledge,  that  philosophy  is  to  be 
.distinguished  from  the  empirical  sciences.     These  latter  de- 


76  The  Problem  of  Method. 

rive  their  material  directly  from  experience  ;  they  find  it  at 
hand  and  take  it  up  just  as  they  find  it.  Philosophy,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  never  satisfied  with  receiving  that  which 
is  given  simply  as  it  is  given,  but  rather  follows  it  out  to  its 
ultimate  grounds;  it  examines  each  individual  thing  in  its 
relations  to  a  fi7ial pi^indple ,  and  considers  it  as  one  element 
of  a  complete  system  of  knowledge.  In  this  way  philoso- 
phy removes  from  the  particulars  of  experience  their  imme- 
diate, individual,  and  accidental  character  ;  from  the  sea  of 
empirical  individualities  it  brings  out  the  universal,  and  sub- 
ordinates the  infinite  and  orderless  mass  of  contingencies  to 
necessary  law\s. 

The  first  period — the  vSocratic — is  marked  externally  by 
the  predominance  of  the  dramatic  element,  and  in  reference 
to  its  philosophical  standpgint,  by  an  adherence  to  the 
method  and  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  Socratic  doc- 
trine. 

Negation  is  not  non-being  but  determinateness,  and  on  the 
other  hand  all  determinateness  and  concreteness  of  concep- 
tions, all  affirmation  arises  only  through  negation  ;  in  other 
words,  the  conception  of  contradiction  is  the  soul  of  a  philo- 
sophical method. 

It  is  clear  that  according  to  this,  the  method  of  Aristotle 
must  be  a  different  one  from  that  of  Plato.  Instead  of  pro- 
ceeding like  the  latter,  synthetically  and  dialectically,  he 
pursues  for  the  most  part  an  analytic  and  regressive  course, 
that  is,  going  backward  from  the  concrete  to  its  ultimate 
ground  and  determination.  While  Plato  would  take  his 
standpoint  in  the  idea,  in  order  to  explain  from  this 
position  and  set  in  a  clearer  light  that  which  is  given  and 
empirical.  Aristotle,  on  the  other  hand,  starts  with  that 
which  is  given,  in  order  to  find  and  exhibit  the  idea  in  it. 
His  method  is,  hence,  induction  ;  that  is,  the  derivation  of 
certain  principles  and  maxims  from  a  sum  of  given  facts  and 


The  PROBI.EM  OF  Method.  77 

phenomena;  his  mode  of  procedure  is,  usually,  argument, 
an  impartial  balance  of  facts,  phenomena,  circumstances 
and  possibilities.  —  [Swegler'  s  History  of  Philosophy^  iSgi^ 
pp.  IS,  i6,  89,  104,  129. 

9.  While  Socrates  was  content  with  the  reduction  of  eth- 
ical phenomena  to  their  notions,  Plato  not  only  universal- 
ized the  method  of  applying  it  to  the  whole  being,  but  also 
sought  to  reduce  the  individual  notions  to  system,  to  exhi- 
bit them  as  a  world  of  ideas.  Dialectic  is,  according  to 
Plato,  the  method  of  the  highest  or  purely  intellectual  knowl- 
edge, in  which  **  reason  avails  itself  of  hypotheses  not  as 
first  principles,  but  as  genuine  hypotheses,  that  is,  as  step- 
ping-stones and  impulses,  whereby  it  may  force  its  way  up 
to  something  not  hypothetical,  and  arrive  at  the  first  prin- 
ciple of  all  things,  and  seize  it  in  its  grasp  ;  which  done,  it 
turns  round,  and  takes  hold  of  this  first  principle,  till  at  last 
it  comes  to  a  conclusion,  calling  in  the  aid  of  no  sensible 
object  whatever,  but  simply  employing  abstract  self-subsist- 
ing forms,  and  terminating  in  the  same. — \Fle7ni71g' s  Vo- 
cabulary of  Philosophy,  i88y,  p.  109. 

10.  Still,  the  allegorical  method,  applied  to  Homer  as  a 
whole,  is  inadequate,  does  not  explain  the  complete  fact. 
Allegory  in  general  substitutes  for  this  particular  thing  said 
by  Homer  another  particular  thing  said  by  the  interpreter, 
who  thus  opens  upon  Homer  all  the  sluices  of  subjective 
caprice.  —  \_S71ider'  s  Commentary  on  Homer' s  Iliad,  p.  92. 

11.  The  Ego  as  Psychosis  knows  itself  as  the  unitary 
movement  in  all  Psychology,  as  that  which  makes  the  mind 
one  in  all  of  its  manifestations.  Thus  it  gives  the  move- 
ment, the  organizing  principle,  the  method.  As  Ego  simply, 
it  is  the  three-fold  process  of  Conception  ;  but  as  Psychosis 
it  is  the  mean  which  connects  all  particularity  and  multi- 
plicity into  unity. 


78  The  Problem  of  Method. 

The  fact  need  hardly  be  told  the  reader  that  the  Psychosis 
has  been  the  method  moving  through  and  organizing  the 
present  book  from  the  start,  the  form-giving  principle 
whose  activity  is  its  own  content  or  subject-matter.  This 
method  is  that  of  the  Ego  itself,  not  derived  from  Natural 
Science  on  the  one  hand,  nor  from  some  metaphysical  system 
on  the  other.  Our  science  must  have  its  own  method  taken 
from  its  own  theme  directly,  which  is  the  Ego  ;  indeed, 
just  this  is  the  source  of  all  true  Method  and  Organization. 

The  method  is  that  which  orders  and  organizes  ;  that 
which  is  ordered  and  organized  is  the  System.  The  Ego  as 
method  is  the  active  form,  yet  just  this  activity  of  the  Ego 
is  the  thing  ordered,  or  the  Content,  which  constitutes  Psy- 
chology proper,  or  the  science,  the  System  of  the  Ego.  * 

The  Ego  has  division,  separation,  special  activities,  or 
faculties  so-called  ;  there  would  be  no  mind  unless  it  spe- 
cialized itself  into  distinct  acts.  These  manifold  determina- 
tions of  the  Ego  must  be  ordered,  not  from  the  outside,  but 
from  the  inside,  by  the  Ego  itself  ;  thus  arises  the  System. 
All  true  systematization  is  the  work  of  the  Ego,  as  Psycho- 
sis, or  as  method;  it  takes  the  vast  details  of  the  science, 
the  chaotic  phenomena,  random  experiments,  scattered  ob- 
servations, and  arranges  them  by  its  own  rule,  which  is  its 
own  process.  Mere  external  classification  of  mental  activi- 
ties is  not  scientific,  is  more  or  less  capricious  ;  the  inherent 
method  of  the  Ego  must  be  seen  winding  through  all  the 
activities  of  the  Ego  and  unfolding  them  into  a  System. 

So  we  have  the  Ego  as  7nethod,  as  the  subjective  creative 
principle  ;  also  we  have  the  Ego  a  System,  as  the  objective 
ordered  series  of  facts.  The  sides  have  shown  themselves 
different,  and  have  fallen  asunder,  hence  arises  the  danger 
that  both  method  and  System  may  become  external  to 
each  other  and  to  their  common  generative  principle,  the 
Ego,     Thus   both   method  and   System,    especially  in   the 


The  Problem  of  Method.  79 

science  of  mind,  may  drop  down  into  the  sheerest  death- 
dealing  formalism,  and  mechanical  abacadabra.  Soul- 
destroying  is  such  Psychology,  and  we  have  the  result  so 
deeply  longed  for  by  a  certain  school  of  Psychologists, 
namely,  "a  Psychology  without  a  soul." 

But  the  rescue  from  such  a  lamentable  outcome  of  our 
science  is  at  hand.  Though  the  Kgo  as  Psychosis,  as  the 
science  of  itself  in  the  very  activity  of  self-knowing,  must 
drop  into  difference  and  separation,  into  the  formalism  of 
method  and  System,  still  it  has  in  itself  the  power  of  its 
own  salvation  and  indeed  of  all  salvation.  The  Ego  as 
Psychosis  must  return  to  itself,  and  thus  mediate  itself 
through  the  Psychosis. 

This  is  the  Psychosis  grasping  itself  as  Psychosis,  the 
psychical  process  recognizing  the  psychical  process  as  the 
inner  principle  of  subject  and  object  and  of  their  unity.  We 
ma3^  call  it  the  absolute  Psychosis  which  knows  itself  to  be 
soul  of  both  method  and  System  as  well  as  the  process  of 
their  unification. 

If  w^e  look  back  a  little  distance  over  the  road  traveled, 
we  find  that  the  Ego  in  the  Dialetic  attains  the  positive  pro- 
cesses of  both  itself  and  the  object,  and  points  implicitly  to 
their  unity.  Now  this  implicit  unity  is  made  explicit  and 
unfolded  into  the  process  of  the  Ego  in  the  Psychosis,  which 
is  essentially  the  development  of  the  mean  process  between 
Subject  and  Object.  The  Psychosis  as  method  revealed  it- 
self as  the  active  moving  principle  in  all  things,  as  their 
process  ordering  and  organizing  them  ;  the  Psychosis  as 
System  showed  itself  as  the  ordered  whole,  in  which  the 
process  is  manifested  as  result.  Finally  the  separation  be- 
tween method  and  System  is  overcome  by  a  new  Psychosis, 
which  mediates  between  the  two  sides  of  a  common  process, 
and  restores  them  to  a  new  unity.  The  movement  of  the 
Psychosis  is,  therefore,  to  dirempt  itself  into  two  sides,  both 


80  The  Problem  of  Method. 

of  vv^hich  are  processes  by  themselves,  which  however  unite 
in  the  third,  which  is  the  PvSychosis  of  the  Psychosis,  or  the 
absolute  Psychosis.  —  [Psychology  and  the  Psychosis,  De7iton 
/.  Sniaer,  1896,  pp.  S5^,  554- - 

12.  For  these  methods  will,  in  all  likelihood,  be  the  roads 
that  lead  to  the  very  spot  where  we  are  to  close  our  march, 
and  rest  from  our  journey. 

At  any  rate,  I  continued,  no  one  will  contradict  us  when 
when  we  assert  that  there  is  no  other  method  which  attempts 
systematically  to  form  a  conception  of  the  real  nature  of 
each  individual  thing. 

Hence  the  dialectic  method,  and  that  alone,  adopts  the 
following  course.  It  carries  back  its  hypothesis  to  the  ver}^ 
first  principles  of  all,  in  order  to  establish  them  firmly  ; 
finding  the  eye  of  the  soul  absolutely  buried  in  a  swamp  of 
barbarous  ignorance,  it  gently  draws  and  raises  it  upwards, 
employing  as  handmaids  in  this  work  of  revolution  the  arts 
which  we  have  discussed.  —  \The  Republic  of  Plato,  i8g^,pp. 
2g,  2^p   260. 

13.  Although  the  foregoing  experiments  suffice  to  show 
that  the  periodic  variations  were  of  central  rather  than  of 
peripheral  origin,  I  sought  a  method  of  experimentation 
which  would  enable  me  to  form  a  clearer  idea  of  the  relative 
influence  exerted  on  the  height  of  the  contractions  by  the 
fatigue  of  the  muscles  and  the  changes  occurring  in  the  cen- 
tral nervous  system.  At  the  suggestion  of  Professor  Mosso 
the  following  form  of  experiment  was  adopted.  The  flexor 
muscles  of  the  second  finger,  weighted  with  one  kilogramme, 
were  stimulated  every  two  seconds.  Two  different  forms 
of  stimuli  were  employed,  electrical  and  voluntary  stimuli, 
and  they  were  applied  alternately.  During  the  electrical 
irritation,  the  nerves  and  muscles  were  stimulated  by  a 
tetanizing  induction  current,  one  of  the  electrodes  being 


The  Problem  of  Method.  81 

placed   over   the   sternum,   the   other   over   the   muscle. — 
{^Pamphlet  on  Effect  of  Fatigue,  p.  ii. 

14.  Your  commission  has  found  it  necessary  to  discuss 
the  question  of  methods  of  teaching  in  numerous  instances, 
while  considering  the  question  of  educational  values  and 
programs,  because  the  value  and  time  of  beginning  of  the 
several  branches  depends  so  largely  on  the  method  of  teach- 
ing. —  \Report  of  Comynittee  of  fifteen,  p.  6g, 

15.  The  usual  way  of  computing  interest  is  based  on  360 
days  to  the  year.  By  the  exact  method  the  actual  number 
of  days  is  found  and  is  regarded  as  so  many  265ths  of  a  year. 
This  rule  is  the  one  adopted  by  banks  and  the  United  States 
Government,  and  it  is  growing  in  favor  among  business 
men.  When  the  time  in  days  is  less  than  1  year,  the  exact 
interest  is  found  by  hrst  calculating  the  interest  according 
to  the  methods  already  given,  and  deducting  -^^  from  the  re- 
sult for  the  common  years  and  g^y  for  the  leap  years. — 
[Complete  Indiana  Arithmetic,  p.  220. 

16.  The  method  of  public  school  education  is  determined 
by  the  aim  and  means,  i.  e.,  the  general  method  of  public 
school  education  is  the  answer  to  the  question  :  '  *  How 
shall  we  use  the  means  so  that  we  may  best  accomplish  the 
aim  ?" 

Of  course  this  is  the  foundation  of  the  child's  scholastic 
work  ;  and  it  follows  that  the  * '  best  method ' '  of  giving  the 
child  the  power  to  read  is  a  very  important  matter.  Further- 
more, it  is  a  subject  that  has  attracted  a  great  deal  of  atten- 
tion in  late  years,  and  it  has  occasioned  much  fierce  discus- 
sion. Several  "  methods''  have  been  championed  by  ardent 
advocates,  as  the  "sentence,"  "word,  "phonic,"  "syn- 
thetic," and  perhaps  others.  Besides  these,  there  is  still  in 
use,    in   some   quarters,    the   old-style.    A,   B,    C,   method. 


82  The  Problem  of  Method. 

Every  one  of  these  methods  has  some  points  of  excellence, 
and  a  good  deal  can  be  said  in  its  favor.  Even  the  old 
method,  which  began  by  first  learning  the  alphabet,  and 
then  combinations  known  as  the  a-b  abs,  is  not  utterly  ab- 
surb  at  some  seem  to  think,  notwithstanding  all  the  modern 
abuse  heaped  upon  it.  It  is  the  method  by  which  nearly 
every  one  of  us  who  is  fifty  years  old,  learned  to  read. 

Herbart's  Method  of  Instruction.  Herbart  made  promi- 
nent three  things  in  his  science  of  education  ;  its  aim,  the 
plan,  and  the  method  of  instruction.  The  first  gives  pur- 
pose, energy,  and  concentration  ;  the  second  relates  to  the 
choice,  arrangement,  and  co-ordination  of  the  material ;  and 
the  third  deals  with  the  systematic,  clear  and  distinct  treat- 
ment, and  elaboration  of  the  various  subjects  of  instruction. 

Basis  of  Herbart's  Methods. — Upon  these  two  acts,  ab- 
sorption and  reflection,  Herbart  bases  his  method  of  instruc- 
tion. 

Progress  of  Reflection  in  Method. — The  progress  of  reflec- 
tion is  method.  It  runs  through  system,  produces  new  mem- 
bers of  it,  and  watches  over  the  results  in  its  application. 

The  Formal  Steps. — Clearness,  association,  system  and 
method  are  the  so-called  '  *  formal  steps  ' '  which  Herbart  also 
designated  according  to  their  educational  activity,  **  to  point 
out,/  "connect,"  "teach,"  and  philosophize." 

Clearness  and  association  belong  to  absorption  ;  system 
and  method  to  reflection.  The  one  expands,  the  other  gives 
self-possession.  —  \Piiblic  School  Journal,  i8y(p,  pp.  2^1,  26 1, 
2y8,  2jg. 

17.  When  work  has  become  a  habit,  and  the  pupil  has 
learned  to  practice  the  right  method  from  his  own  impulse 
rather  than  on  account  of  external  authority,  his  education 
in  school  has  ended. 

But  the  subject  must  be  adapted  to  the  consciousness  of  the 
pupil,  and  here  the  order  of  procedure  and  the  exposition 


Thk  PROBI.EM  OF  Method.  83 

depend  upon  the  stage  which  he  has  reached  intellectually, 
for  the  special  manner  of  instruction  must  be  conditioned 
by  this.  If  he  is  in  the  stage  of  sense-perception,  we  must 
2ise  the  illustrative  method ;  if  in  the  stage  of  image  concep- 
tion, that  of  combination  ;  and  if  in  the  stage  of  thinking, 
that  of  demonstration.  The  first  exliibits  the  object  di- 
rectly, or  some  representation  of  it  ;  the  second  considers  it 
according  to  the  different  possibilities  which  exist  in  it,  and 
turns  it  around  on  all  sides  (and  examines  its  relations  to 
other  things) ;  the  third  demonstrates  the  necessity  of  the 
relations  in  which  it  stands  either  with  itself  or  with  others. 
This  is  the  natural  order  from  the  standpoint  of  the  devel- 
oping intelligence  ;  first,  the  object  is  presented  to  the  per- 
ception; then  combination  with  other  things  shows  its  rela- 
tions and  presents  its  different  phases  ;  and,  finally,  the 
thinking  activit}^  circumscribes  the  restlessly  moving  reflec- 
tion by  the  idea  of  necessity.  Experiment  hi  the  method  of 
combination  is  an  excellent  means  for  a  discovery  of  rela- 
tions, for  a  sharpening  of  the  attention,  for  the  arousing  of 
a  many-sided  interest  ;  but  it  is  no  true  dialectic,  though  it 
be  often  denoted  by  that  name. — \_R0senkra712'  s  Philosophy 
of  Education,  i88g,  p.  xiv  in  Analysis  of  Co7ite7its  ;  hi  body  of 
book,  p.  ^c?.] 

18.  Hegel  employs  in  this  vo3^age  of  discovery  a  method 
that  he  names  the  dialectic."  It  has  throughout  the  ap- 
pearance of  being  a  stricter  method  than  that  of  Fichte's 
"Science  of  knowledge,"  and  claims  to  be  objective — an 
exhibition  of  the  necessity  of  the  process  which  is  in  the  ob- 
ject before  us,  in  contradistinction  from  mere  subjective 
reflection  upon  it  made  from  points  of  view  external  to  the 
object. 

Hegel's  method  ^o^^  not  seek  to  find  an  external  basis  of 
attack  or  defense,  but  to  get  this  basis  from  the  object 
itself. 


84  The  Probi^em  of  Method. 

Here  we  have  the  famous  dialectic  which  is  described  as 
the  self-movement  of  the  notion  {Begriff).  Seize  an  im- 
perfect idea  and  it  will  show  up  its  imperfection  b}^  leading 
to  and  implying  another  idea  as  a  more  perfect  or  complete 
form  of  it.  Its  imperfection  wall  show  itself  as  dependence 
on  another.  This  is  the  philosophic  method  seen  so  clearly 
by  Plato  and  stated  in  his  Repiiblie  (Book  VII,  chapter  8). 
Pure  science  according  to  him  has  a  dialectic  viethod  and 
starts  with  hypotheses — or,  as  we  should  describe  them,  de- 
pendent ideas,  ideas  that  imply  other  ideas  to  make  them 
possible,  just  as  the  idea  of  inner  and  outer  or  positive  and 
negative  imply  each  other.  But  this  dialectic  method  annuls 
these  hypotheses  on  its  way  towards  the  highest  principle. 
******  The  etymological  ground  is  a  dan- 
gerous one,  however,  and  it  is  better  not  to  build  on  it. 
Plato  seems  to  mean  that  the  dialectic  method  starts  with 
premises  given  by  sense- perception  and  ordinary  reflection, 
and  seeking  the  presuppositions  of  these  ascends  to  the 
first  principle.  An  example  of  this  is  found  in  the  infer- 
ence of  independent  being  as  the  necessary  condition 
for  the  existence  of  dependent  being,  and  this  may  be  said 
to  be  the  substantial  insight  lying  at  the  basis  of  all  true 
philsophy.  Plato  contrasts  this  method  of  ascending  from 
the  imperfect  to  the  perfect  by  discovering  presuppositions, 
with  the  geometric  method  that  uses  axioms  or  fixed. hypo- 
theses, not  being  able  to  deduce  them  or  explain  them. — 
\HegeVs  Logic,  1890,  pp.  57,  58,  174,  17s.'] 

PEDAGOGICAI.  MEANINGS. 

1.     7^<?/i^^^  of  presenting. 

a.  Teach  the  poem  as  a  reading  lesson.  If  the  thought 
is  mastered  the  song  will  be  full  of  meaning,  and  will  not 
be  given  as  a  mere  saying  of  words. 

b.  Teach  the  melod}^  by  singing  each  phase  until  it  is 


The  Problem  of  Method.  85 

correctly  given.  —  \Oiitline  of  Music  for  Township  Institute 
Work,    Vigo  Cotmty  Schools,  i8p6-'/.'] 

2.  Francis  Bacon  had  little  aptitude  for  scientific  re- 
search. He  added  nothing  to  the  sum  of  scientific  knowl- 
edge, 3"et  he  gave  his  name  to  the  scientific  method,  and 
wrote  a  book  which  in  epoch-making  power  stands  beside 
Descarte's  Discourse,  Newton's  Principia,  and  Darwin's 
Origin  of  Species.  >!<>!<*  Thus  at  the  outset  Bacon  sees 
that  there  is  a  method  by  which  all  human  knowledge  can 
be  placed  upon  a  sound  and  permanent  basis,  and  he  devoted 
the  better  part  of  his  life  to  the  attempt  to  discover  or  in- 
vent such  a  method.  His  first  aphorism  printed  at  the  head 
of  this  chapter,  indeed,  its  very  first  line,  "  a  man,  the  ser- 
vant and  interpreter  of  nature,"  embodies  the  whole  of  the 
scientific  spirit  and  the  scientific  method.  *  >1^  *  These 
subjects  are  discussed  with  constant  reference  to  the  new 
method  which  he  believes  able  and  destined  to  work  a  revo- 
lution in  human  thought  and  life.  *  *  *  (1)  Methods 
used.  The  logic  now  in  use  serves  rather  to  fix  and  give 
stability  to  the  errors  which  have  their  foundation  in  com- 
monly received  notions  than  to  help  the  search  for  truth. 
The  syllogism  consists  of  propositions,  propositions  consist 
of  words,  words  are  symbols  of  notions.  Therefore  if  the 
notions  themselves  are  confused  there  can  be  no  firmness  in 
the  superstructure.  It  commands  assent  to  the  proposition, 
but  does  not  take  hold  of  the  thing.  There  are  and  can  be 
only  two  ways  of  searching  into  and  discovering  truth.  The 
one  rises  from  the  senses  and  particulars  to  the  most  general 
axioms,  (laws),  and  from  these  principles,  the  truth  of 
which  it  takes  for  settled  and  immovable,  proceeds  to 
judgment  and  to  the  discovery  of  middle  axioms.  And  this 
wa}^  is  now  in  fashion.  The  other  derives  axioms  from  the 
senses,  and  particulars,  rising  by  a  gradual  and  unbroken 
ascent,  so  that  it  arrives  at  the  most  general  axioms  last  of 


86  The  Problem  of  Method. 

all.  This  is  the  true  way,  but  as  yet  untried.  It  can  not 
be  that  axioms  established  by  argumentation  should  avail 
for  the  discovery  of  new  works  ;  since  the  subtlety  of  nature 
is  greater  many  times  over  than  the  subtlety  of  argument. 
But  axioms  duly  and  orderly  formed  from  particulars  easily 
discover  the  way  to  new  particulars,  and  thus  render  science 
active.  The  only  hope,  therefore,  lies  in  a  true  induction,  O^ie 
method  of  delivery  alone  remains  to  us,  which  is  simply 
this :  we  must  lead  men  to  the  particulars  themselves,  and 
their  series  and  order  ;  while  men  on  their  side  must  force 
themselves  for  awhile  to  lay  their  7iotions  by  and  begin  to  famili- 
arize themselves  with  facts.  The  conclusions  of  human  rea- 
son as  ordinarily  applied  in  matters  of  nature,  I  call  for  the 
sake  of  distinction.  Anticipations  of  Nature  (as  a  thing  rash 
or  premature).  That  reason  which  is  elicited  from  just 
and  methodical  process  I  call  hiterpretation  of  Nature. —  \J^a- 
conia7i  Revolt,  hilajid  Educator,  October,  i8p^.~\ 

3.  But  it  is  no  less  true  that  these  complaints  are  due  in 
no  small  measure  to  false  methods  of  linguistic  training  gener- 
ally, or  to  some  cherished  prejudices  in  favor  of  certain  lan- 
guages on  the  part  of  the  teachers  ;  and  it  becomes,  there- 
fore, at  the  present  day,  a  matter  of  great  practical  impor- 
tance to  inquire  how  far  our  traditional  methods  of  teaching 
languages  are  in  conformity  with  the  method  of  Nature  in 
her  great  art  of  thought-utterance,  and  how  far  they  may 
justly  be  called  on  to  submit  themselves  to  a  revision  and  a 
reconstitution. 

As  language  is  a  function  which  belongs  as  much  to  every 
normal  human  creature  as  seeing  or  hearing,  there  can  be 
no  difficulty  in  finding  out  the  method  of  Nature  in  its  ac- 
quisition. We  have  to  answer  only  two  questions  :  first, 
what  are  the  factors  of  the  process  by  which  the  human 
babe  from  being  capable  merely  of  inarticulate  cries,  like 
anv  of  the  lower  animals,   is  developed  into  an  easy  and 


Thk  Problem  of  Method.  87 

graceful  manipulator  of  articulate  .speech  ?  and  again,  How 
far,  and  in  what  respects,  does  this  model  require  to  be 
modified  in  order  to  enable  the  expert  handlers  of  the  mother 
tongue  to  use  an}^  second  or  third  language  with  like  ex- 
pertness  ? 

Why  does  it  seem  such  a  difficult  business  to  acquire  a 
familiar  knowledge  of  any  foreign  language,  and  why  so 
much  brain  and  so  much  time  spent  so  frequently  on  their 
acquisition  with  such  scanty  results  ?  The  answer  can  be  only 
one  :  because  your  teacher  has  ignored  the  method  of  Na- 
ture, and  given  you  a  bad  substitute  for  it  in  his  own  de- 
vices ;  instead  of  speaking  to  you  and  making  you  respond, 
in  direct  connection  of  the  old  object  with  the  new  sound, 
and  thus  forming  a  living  bond  between  the  thinking  soul, 
the  perceptive  sense,  and  the  significant  utterance,  he  sends 
you  to  a  book,  there  to  cram  yourself  with  dead  rules  and 
lifeless  formulas  about  the  language,  in  the  middle  of  which 
he  ought  to  have  planted  you  at  the  start. 

These  things  being  so,  and  the  iuethod  of  nature  being  so 
plain  in  the  matter,  we  now  ask  what  are  the  causes  that 
have  led  so  many  of  our  teachers,  even  the  most  accom- 
plished of  their  class,  to  neglect  so  infallible  a  guide,  and  to 
follow  methods  of  linguistic  inculcation  equally  unpleasant  in 
the  process  and  unprofitable  in  the  result  ? 

IvCt  books  and  not  living  converse  be  the  final  end  of  the 
study  of  languages  ;  so  they  certainly  are  with  the  dead  lan- 
guages ;  but  even  with  regard  to  them  it  is  quite  certain 
that  the  familiarity  and  frequent  repetition  which  are  the 
special  virtues  of  the  conversational  method  both  render  the 
mastery  of  books,  as  in  the  case  of  the  mother  tongue,  more 
complete,  and  the  hold  of  the  printed  signature  at  once 
more  firm  in  the  grasp  and  more  easy  in  the  approach. 

There  is  one  other  objection  to  the  conversational  method 
in  the  teaching  of  languages,  viz  :    that  it  makes  a  man  a 


88  The  Problem  of  Method. 

parrot.  Well,  a  parrot  is  an  imitative  animal,  and  so  is  a 
man,  and  so  far  must  not  be  ashamed  to  own  his  kinship 
with  the  plumy  prattler. 

In  conclusion,  I  have  a  word  or  two  to  say  with  regard  to 
the  occasion  and  the  plan  of  this  little  book.  In  the  first 
place,  whatever  may  be  said  of  Hebrew  or  Latin,  Greek  is  a 
living  language,  and  must  be  treated  as  such  even  by  those 
who  persist  in  the  notion  that,  while  the  method  of  living 
vocal  appeal  applies  in  its  full  extent  to  modern  languages, 
it  is  certainly  out  of  place  in  the  treatment  of  the  two  an- 
cient languages  which  justly  claim  the  first  place  in  the  lin- 
guistic culture  of  our  highest  schools. 

But  since  that  time,  as  a  natural  consequence  of  the  great 
educational  movement  of  the  age,  some  very  distinct  voices 
have  come  to  my  ear.  to  the  effect  that  there  is  something 
radically  wrong  in  our  way  of  dealing  with  languages,  and 
that  the  method  of  teaching  by  rules  and  grammar  mainly 
can  no  longer  be  tolerated. 

When  the  young  Hellenist  has  stamped  its  Greek  desig- 
nation directly  on  every  object  that  meets  his  eyes,  and  con- 
nected it  with  some  single  verb  that  belongs  to  its  signifi- 
cance in  familiar  life,  I  would  then  suggest  that  the  teacher, 
besides  the  daily  repetition  of  certain  forms  of  common  con- 
versation, should  give  a  viva  voce  description  of  pictures 
hung  on  the  wall  two  or  three  times  a  week,  which  the 
learner  shall  be  called  on  to  repeat  without  any  written 
notes  ;  the  principle  of  the  method  being  always  to  maintain 
the  direct  action  of  the  mind  on  the  object,  through  the  in- 
strumentality of  the  new  sound,  without  the  intervention 
of  the  mother  tongue. 

One  other  matter  requires  special  notice — a  matter  not 
necessarily  connected  with  the  colloquial  method,  but  which 
may  be  wisely  used  as  a  help.  To  each  lesson  I  have  ap- 
pended a  short  list  of  English  words,  either  by  family  affin- 


The  Probi^em  of  Method.  89 

ity,  or  by  direct  borrowing  through  the  I^atin,  radically 
identical  with  the  Greek.  —  {Preface  in  Blackie' s  Greek 
Primer,  pp.  v  fo  xv.~\ 

4.  In  this  paper  I  attempt  to  contrast  the  methods  of 
the  Kindergarten  with  those  of  the  Primary  School  as  it 
exists  and  has  existed  in  America,  not  with  the  intention  of 
disparaging  either  of  these  institutions,  but  in  order  to  point 
out  a  certain  fitness  of  each  method  for  its  work  in  hand. 
I  claim  here,  and  I  claimed  long  ago  when  I  recommend- 
ed the  school  board  of  St.  lyouis  in  1872  to  establish  a 
kindergarten,  that  the  presence  of  a  kindergarten  in  a  sys- 
tem of  public  schools  will,  of  itself,  work  some  change  in 
the  methods  of  the  primary  school,  that  will  be  a  great  ben- 
efit to  those  inethods.  But  I  wish  to  show  that  the  methods 
of  the  primary  schools,  substantially  as  they  are,  have  a 
foundation  in  reason,  and  that  it  is  not  well  for  our  friends 
of  the  kindergarten  to  look  always  in  the  direction  of  a  revo- 
lution in  the  methods  of  the  primary  school,  and  the  adoption 
of  plays  and  games  and  gifts  and  occupations,  or  some  man- 
ual training  modification  of  these  in  the  course  of  instruc- 
tion for  children  from  the  age  of  seven  to  twelve  years. 
On  the  other  hand  I  hope  to  convince  the  friends  of  the  pri- 
mary schools  that  their  methods  are  not  good  for  children 
under  seven  years,  but  that  the  kindergarten  methods  are 
most  happily  devised  for  children  of  the  tender  age  — 
between  four  and*  six  years.  As  teachers  we  must  not  get 
the  method  which  we  practice  in  the  special  grade  in  which 
w^e  are  teaching  so  close  to  our  eyes  that  it  shuts  out  all 
other  grades  and  all  other  methods.  We  mUvSt  study  educa- 
tion in  view  of  the  entire  life  of  man,  and  never  forget  that 
w^ork  with  the  children  is  to  fit  them  for  manhood  and 
womanhood.  It  is  not  our  object  to  prolong  childhood  for- 
ever ;  but  on  the  other  hand  we  wish  to  prevent  too  rapid 
transitions  from  one  stage  of  development  to  another.     We 


90  The  Probi^km  of  Method. 

do  not  wish  to  see  a  hot-house  system  of  education,  forcing- 
the  growth  of  our  human  plants  for  the  world  market. — 
\Harris'  Kindergarte^i  Methods,  pp.  J,  /.] 

5.  According  to  the  classification  given  by  Professor 
Brooks  in  his  excellent  book  entitled  ' '  Normal  Methods  of 
Teaching,"  there  are  four  correct  methods  of  teaching  the 
noble  .science  of  geography.  (I)  The  Ajialytic  Method, 
which  begins  with  the  world  as  a  whole,  and  passes  by  suc- 
cessive divisions  down  to  the  State,  county,  town  or  city  in 
which  we  reside  ;  (2)  The  Sy?ithetic,  which  begins  at  the 
smaller  division,  as  a  schoolhouse,  yard,  town,  county, 
etc. ,  and  passes  by  successive  enlargements  to  the  surface 
of  the  world  ;  (3)  The  Inductive,  which  begins  with  the 
particular  facts  of  science,  and  passes  to  their  classification 
into  systems  ;  and  (4)  The  Deductive,  which  seizes  upon 
the  laws  or  general  characteristics  of  a  group  of  facts,  and 
passes  to  the  particulars  embraced  under  these  laws.  This 
last  method  is  more  than  analytic.  It  not  only  goes  from 
the  whole  to  its  parts,  but  from  the  general  to  the  particu- 
lar. It  is  not  our  purpose  to  discuss  now  the  relative  value, 
or  the  proper  employment,  of  these  methods  We  seek  the 
more  practical. 

Whether  the  method  of  teaching  the  whole  subject  of  geo- 
graphy be  analytic,  synthetic,  or  inductive,  we  recommend, 
in  place  of  following  the  text-book.  The  Topical  Method  of 
Study. 

We  do  this  with  much  confidence,  after  years  of  experi- 
ment and  diligent  search  for  light  on  the  subject,  because 
it  is  the  best  method  thus  far  found  by  which  to  create  un- 
bounded interest  among  pupils  in  this  study,  and  because  it 
enables  the  teacher  to  instruct  with  satisfaction  and  pleas- 
ure.—  [King's  Methods  i7i  Geography,  i88<p,pp,  44.,  ^5.] 

6.  In  teaching  the  art  of  reading,  he  may  teach  them  the 
sounds   of   whole   words,    and   by  comparison   evolve   the 


The  Problem  of  Method.  91 

sounds  of  particular  letters  ;  or  he  may  associate  with  the 
several  letters  their  respective  sounds,  and  require  them  to 
construct  the  sounds  of  words  by  combination  of  the  letter- 
sounds  ;  the  one  course  is  analytic,  the  other  synthetic. 

But  methods  are  right  and  necessary  in  their  own  place  ; 
they  are  parts  of  one  whole,  related  to  each  other  as  antece- 
dent and  consequent.  The  observation  of  particulars  is  an 
incomplete  and  fruitless  process,  unless  it  issue  in  the  estab- 
lishment and  application  of  general  principles  ;  but  the  ap- 
plication of  such  principles  must  be  feeble  and  unreal  unless 
founded  on  previous  observation  and  particulars.  In  giving 
lessons,  therefore,  the  teacher  must  consider  which  of  these 
two  methods,  mainly  or  wholly,  he  should  adopt.  —  \Cttrrie' s 
Com?non  School  Educatio7i,  pp.  26^,  ^/o*] 

7.  The  old,  long-established  method  in  arithmetic  is  cal- 
culated to  teach  the  first  four  processes  of  addition,  subtrac- 
tion, multiplication,  division,  in  the  order  in  which  they  are 
named,  finishing  addition  with  small  and  large  numbers, 
before  subtraction  is  begun,  and  so  forth.  A  more  recent 
improvement  on  this  viethod  consisted  in  excluding  the  large 
numbers  altogether  at  the  beginning,  and  dividing  the  num- 
bers on  which  the  first  four  processes  were  taught,  into 
classes,  or  so-called  circles.  The  child  learns  each  of  the 
four  processes  with  the  small  numbers  of  the  first  circle 
(i.  e.,  from  1  to  10)  before  the  larger  numbers  are  consid- 
ered ;  then  the  same  processes  are  taught  with  the  numbers 
of  the  second  circle,  from  10  to  100,  then  to  the  third,  from 
from  100  to  1,000,  and  so  forth. 

Grube,  however,  went  beyond  this  principle  of  classifica- 
tion. He  discarded  the  use  of  large  numbers,  hundreds  and 
thousands,  at  the  beginning  of  the  course,  as  others  had 
done  before  him  ;  but  instead  of  dividing  the  primary  work 
in  arithmetic  into  three  or  four  circles  or  parts  only,  i.  e., 
from  i  to  10,  10  to  100,  etc. ,  he  considered  each  number  as 


92  The  PROBI.EM  OF  Method. 

a  circle  or  part  by  itself,  and  taught  it  by  a  7nethod  that  is  to 
be  set  forth  in  the  following  pages.  He  recommended  that 
the  child  should  learn  each  of  the  smaller  numbers  in  suc- 
cession, and  all  the  operations  within  the  range  of  each  num- 
ber, addition,  subtraction,  multiplication  and  division,  be- 
fore proceeding  to  the  consideration  of  the  next  higher 
number. 

In  the  following,  Mr.  Grube  gives  but  the  outline,  the 
skeleton  as  it  were,  of  his  method,  trusting  that  the  teacher 
wdll  supply  the  rest.  The  sign  of  division,  as  will  be  ex- 
plained below,  should  be  read  at  the  beginning  ;  "From 
.  .  .  I  can  take  away  ...  —  times."  By  this  w^ay  of  read- 
ing, the  connection  between  subtraction  and  division  be- 
comes evident. 

I.     The  pure  number. 

a.  Measuring  (comparing). 

o      •        2. 

n  +  1  -=  2. 

2x1-2. 
2  — 1  -=  1. 

2  -^-  1  =  2.      (Read:     From    2    I   can   take 
aw^ay  1  twice.) 

2  is  one  more  than  1. 

1  is  one  less  than  2. 

2  is  the  double  of  1,  or  twice  1. 
1  is  one  half  of  2. 

b.  Practice  by  soi^ving  examples  rapidly. 

1  +  1=?  2  —  1-=?  2^1=?  1  +  1— X2  —  ? 
etc. 

c.  Combinations. 

What  number  is  contained  twice  in  2  ? 
2  is  double  of  what  number  ? 
Of  what  number  is  1  one-half  ? 
Which  number  must  I  double  to  get  2  ? 


The  Problem  of  Method.  93 

I  know  a  number  that  has  in  it  one  more  than  one. 
Which  is  it  ? 

What  number  have  I  to  add  to  1  in  order  to  get  2  ? 

II.     Applied  numbers. 

Fred  had  two  dimes,  and  bought  cherries  for  one  dime. 
How  many  dimes  had  he  left  ? 

A  slate-pencil  costs  1  cent.  How  much  will  two  vslate- 
pencils  cost  ? 

Charles  had  a  marble,  and  his  sister  had  twice  as  many. 
How  many  did  she  have  ? 

How  many  one-cent  stamps  can  you  buy  for  2  cents? — 
[Soldau's  Grube  Method,  1878,  pp.  5,  6,  10,  11,  12.'] 

8.  ''While  the  critics  are  condemning,  (the  Quincy 
methods)  they  are  found  to  be  diligent  in  applying  them  ; 
and  when  well  incorporated  into  their  own  work,  the  same 
persons,  unconsciously  to  themselves  perhaps,  will  be  bold 
to  claim  the  methods  as  of  their  own  originating. 

The  methods  of  the  Quincy  schools  are  the  methods  which 
have  been  used  and  are  being  adopted  wherever  they  are 
known  and  understood,  and  wherever  the  teachers  have  the 
skill  and  the  permission  to  employ  them. — George  A.Walton, 
of  Massachusetts  Board  of  Education,  in  "  Methods  of  the 
Schools  of  Quincy,  Mass."  ("Education,"  September, 
October,  1883.)— [77z<?  Quincy  Methods,  1885,  Preface,  p.  iv.~\ 

9.  Methods  and  Ways. — A  thing  is  known  when  its  place 
and  function  among  other  things  is  discerned.  Everything 
is  a  part  of  a  system  of  things  that  are  .so  inter-related  that 
each  forms  a  part  of  a  larger  whole.  When  w^e  explain  a  thing 
we  merely  show  its  connection  with  things  already  known. 
We  find  that  in  it  which  is  the  same  as  that  which  is  already 
known,  and  then  we  string  this  new  thing  on  this  common 
cord  and  say  we  understand  it. 

There  are  different  methds  of  explaining  things.  Divided 
►n  one  basis  these  methods  are  two.     One  is  called  the  Method 


94  The  Problkm  of  Method. 

of  Discovery.  In  it  the  learner  is  required  to  take  his  stand 
upon  some  basis  of  knowledge  already  acquired,  and  then 
bring  certain  things  together  in  certain  ways  and  note  the 
results.  It  is  the  function  of  the  teacher  to  select  the  things 
and  prescribe  the  wa}^  in  which  they  shall  be  treated.  The 
pupil  is  to  follow  directions  and  observe  the  results.  Now 
there  are  many  different  ways  of  doing  this.  Every  teacher 
will  have  his  peculiar  maimer  of  leading  the  child  to  make 
these  discoveries,  but  so  long  as  the  pupil  is  required  to  do 
certain  things  and  to  observe  and  state  results,  the  Method 
of  discovery  is  employed.  With  young  or  inexperienced 
learners,  the  teacher's  directions  must  be  much  more  specific 
and  detailed,  than  with  learners  of  larger  experience,  or 
more  mature  age.  Let  it  be  noted,  however,  that  the  prac- 
tice of  this  method  di^mdiXiA^  of  the  teacher  that  he  direct  what 
objects  be  selected,  and  what  be  done  with  them.  In  this 
he  employs  the  other  method^  called  by  writers  generally  the 
Method  of  Instruction.  He  instructs  them  what  to  do,  but 
does  not  instruct  them  as  to  results. 

The  Method  of  Instruction  differs  from  that  of  Discovery 
in  this,  that  the  teacher  or  book  presents  to  the  learner  both 
the  procevSS  and  the  result.  He  is  required  to  follow  merely 
the  instructor  and  think  his  thoughts  after  him  throughout 
the  entire  process.  Having  been  told  what  the  result  will 
be,  he  knows  what  to  expect,  when  the  things  are  brought 
together,  and  the  experiment  is  performed  to  test  the  truth 
of  the  teacher's  statement.  This  experiment  makes  more 
vivid  the  knowledge  because  words  will  not  cause  the  mind 
to  construct  so  distinct  an  image  as  objects  will.  But  there 
is  no  discovery  in  this  method.  It  is  making  clearer  what 
was  told  aud  was  vaguely  seen  before.  Now  there  may  be 
many  ways  in  which  this  instruction  can  be  given.  The  in- 
dividuality of  each  teacher  is  shown  b}^  the  way  he  adopts. 

Methods  of  teaching  are  few,  but  the  ways  in  w^hich  a 


The  Problem  of  Method.  '     95 

method  may  be  followed  are  many.  We  hold  that  it  is  the 
proper  function  of  teachers  of  pedagogy,  school  journals, 
and  professional  books  to  discuss  and  help  teachers  to  deter- 
mine what  are  the  best  fnethods,  but  that  they  should  pay 
little  attention  to  individual  ways  of  following  these  methods. 
That  is  a  realm  in  which  the  teacher  should  be  left  to  act 
freely,  untrammelled  by  what  he  may  conceive  to  be  the 
dictates  of  superior  wisdom.  If  he  has  a  clear  idea  of  the 
thing  to  be  done,  and  of  the  method  of  the  doing,  he  will  be 
certain  to  do  it  more  satisfactorily  if  left  free  to  determine 
his  own  way.  To  prescribe  a  way  for  him  is  quite  as  apt 
to  trammel  as  to  assist  him.  —  \The  Public  School  Journal, 
March,  i8^i,  pp  ^2^,  J28.'] 

10.  It  is  not  incumbent  on  teachers  to  mark  out  a  course 
of  study,  for  that  is  always  provided,  or  at  least  should  be.  It 
is  their  function  to  interpret  and  teach  what  is  indicated  in  the 
course  of  study.  It  is  very  noticeable  that  the  "eternal 
why  of  things"  has  not  been  as  carefully  consi<lered  and 
answered  as  the  importance  of  the  work  demands. 

When  asked  why  we  teach  certain  things  in  a  certain 
manner  there  is  often  a  look  of  blank  surprise  which  ex- 
presses, at  least,  a  query  as  to  whether  work  and  methods 
are  legitimate  fields  of  investigation. — \^The  Inland  Educa- 
tor, Jan.,  iS^y,  p.  2pi.^ 

11.  Geography,  well  taught,  is  an  educational  study 
cultivating  the  imagination  and  judgment,  as  well  as  the 
memory  ;  training  the  mind  in  both  observation  and  lan- 
guage. Perhaps  no  other  branch  in  the  grammar-school 
curriculum  gives  opportunity  for  culture  in  so  many  direc- 
tions. 

Are  we  to  have  question  and  answer,  or  topical  recita- 

^tions?     Surely  both  have  a  place.     During  the  presentation 

►f  new  points  the  Socratic  method  is  the  true  one.     The 

Iteacher  must  excite  mental  activity  in  the  class  by  skilful 


96     ■  The  Problem  of  Method. 

questioning.  The  children  must  be  led  to  think,  to  exam- 
ine, to  express  the  results  of  their  study.  The  teacher 
should  tell  them  nothing  they  can  naturally  find  out  for 
themselves  ;  but  their  earnest  study  should  be  supplemented 
by  bits  of  information,  vivid  descriptions  and  other  illustra- 
tions, given  by  the  teacher,  in  their  proper  connection. 
This,  and  this  alone,  is  true  oral  instruction,  the  direction 
of  the  mental  activity  of  the  pupils.  After  this  come  the 
memory-lessons,  the  definitions,  and  finally,  the  reproduc- 
ing of  the  different  points  of  the  geography  of  any  country, 
by  topical  recitations.  These  should  be  the  independent 
efforts  of  the  pupils,  expressed  in  their  own  language. 

I.  Lessons  on  Place  (including  Relative  Position,  Direc- 
tion, and  Distance). 

1.  («).  Illustrations  of  the  use  of  the  prepositions  of 
place  ;  as  on,  above,  before,  between,  under,  below,  behind, 
around,  etc. 

Method. 

By  placing  objects. 

The  teacher  places the  pupil  imitates. 

The  teacher  places the  pupil  describes. 

The  teacher  dictates    ....  the  pupil  places. 

The  teacher  disarranges     .    .  the  pupil  rearranges  from  memory. 

—  \Crocker' s  Methods  in  Geography ,  1884,  pp.  5,  d.  7,  /o.] 

12.  Address  delivered  at  the  Winter  Convocation  of  the 
Morgan  Park  Academy,  January  4,  1897,  by  Robert  H. 
Cornish  : 

"  Science  is  classified  knowledge.  When  the  facts  of  lan- 
guage, of  mathematics,  of  history  or  of  literature  are  put 
into  orderly  arrangement,  are  grouped  according  to  their 
relationship  and  are  explained  by  laws  then  we  have  the 
science  of  language,  of  mathematics,  or  of  literature. 
Science  thus  considered  includes  all  school  studies,  and  stu- 
dents of  the  branches  just  mentioned  are  students  of  science. 


The  Problem  of  Method.  97 

This  is  not  the  use  of  the  word  in  our  subject.  According 
to  another  more  restricted  use  of  the  word,  science  includes 
a  classified  knowledge  of  things  objective,  that  is,  of  things 
that  have  their  existence  outside  the  human  mind.  Bunker 
Hill  and  patriotism,  broad  fields  and  contentment,  the  ocean 
and  sublimity  may  be  synonymous  terms,  but  as  subjects  of 
study  the  surface  of  the  earth  and  the  ocean  are  fundamen- 
tally different  from  hope  and  contentment. 

Science  then  is  classified  knowledge  of  the  facts  and  phe- 
iiomena  of  the  physical  universe  with  an  explanation  of  the 
reasons  of  these  phenomena  so  far  as  the  reasons  are  under- 
stood. But  the  physical  universe  is  a  ver}^  large  affair  and 
is  constantly  growing  larger  through  our  increased  knowl- 
edge of  it.  The  men  who  attempt  to  include  the  whole 
range  of  the  physical  universe  in  their  studies  are  ver}^  few. 
Humboldt  was  perhaps  the  last  of  a  line  of  scientific  work- 
ers who  kept  in  touch  with  all  branches  of  science  and  made 
contributions  to  all.  Scientific  workers  divide  and  subdi- 
vide their  work  and  thus  we  have  developed  those  great 
branches  of  scientific  study  of  which  physics,  biolog}^  and 
astronomy  are  examples.  These  branches  of  science  or 
sciences  are  grouped  into  two  great  divisions  ;  (1)  the  phy- 
sical sciences  or  those  which  deal  with  matter  and  energy. 
Physics,  chemistry,  and  geology,  are  physical  sciences. 
(2)  Those  which  deal  with  matter  and  energy  and  an  added 
something  called  life.  The  group  constitutes  the  biological 
sciences  and  includes  botany  and  zoology  as  principal  mem- 
bers. 

Our  subject  then  is  the  value,  in  a  school  such  as  ours,  of 
the  training  of  one  or  more  sciences  not  as  opposed  to  but 
as  contrasted  and  compared  with  other  subjects  which  are 
studied  by  our  students. 

The  time  has  gone  by  when  it  was  necessary  to  enter 
into  any  defense  of  the  place  of  science  in  a  general  educa- 


^  Thk  Problem  of  Method. 

tion.  There  was  a  time  when  the  sciences  were  not  recog- 
nized as  necessary  in  a  college  course,  much  less  in  a  second- 
ar\-  school.  Latin,  Greek,  and  mathematics,  with  mental 
and  moral  science  which  were  not  science  at  all,  were  about 
the  only  things  studied  at  Yale  College  one  hundred  years 
ago.  The  colleges  all  over  the  country  have  now  admitted 
science  studies  into  the  general  curriculum.  In  many  col- 
leges the  science  courses  are  elementary  in  character  and 
differ  not  at  all  from  those  given  in  many  high  schools. 
Into  secondary  schools  which  prepare  for  college  the  admis- 
sion of  science  studies  has  been  slower  than  into  the  colleges 
themselves.  Time  forbids  entering  into  a  full  discussion  of 
the  reasons  for  this.  I  agree  with  those  who  say  that  any 
subject  that  knocks  for  admission  at  the  door  of  our  already 
crowded  curriculum  should  justify  its  claim.  I  agree  with 
Professor  Remsen  who  says  that  slipshod  laboratory  work 
in  science  is  a  very  poor  substitute  for  a  good  course  in 
Greek  or  mathematics.  If  science  courses  in  college  or  the 
academy  are  "  snap"  courses,  if  they  do  not  as  a  rule  give 
either  the  mental  training  or  spiritual  quickening  that  comes 
from  other  courses  they  would  better  be  thrown  out.  In 
order  to  understand  better  the  value  of  science  in  school 
training  allow  me  to  describe  the  scientific  method  of  work. 
I  think  it  is  of  more  value  to  the  student  to  understand 
the  scientific  method,  to  develop  the  scientific  habit  of  mind 
than  it  is  to  acquire  a  few  or  even  many  facts  about  a  par- 
ticular science.  The  scientific  method  has  the  following 
steps  :  (1)  The  collection  of  facts.  This  involves  obser- 
vation, classification,  comparison,  measurement.  If  the  ob- 
jects dealt  with  cannot  be  measured,  if  they  cannot  be 
counted,  or  weighed  in  a  balance,  then  they  do  not  belong  in 
the  realm  of  the  sciences  that  I  am  considering.  These  ob- 
servations it  may  take  years  to  collect.  This  part  of  the 
work    is   of    great    importance.       Every    notable   scientific 


The  PROBI.KM  OF  Method.  99 

achievement  rests  upon  a  long  continued  series  of  patient 
observations.  (2)  The  enunciation  of  a  general  law  which 
groups  and  explains  the  facts.  This  is  called  induction  or 
generalization.  The  larger  the  group  of  facts  examined, 
the  wider  the  generalization  must  be  to  include  them  all. 
(3)  The  third  step  is  verification  by  experiment.  This 
tests  the  law  discovered  by  applying  it  to  a  new  case  or  by 
bringing  forward  the  facts  not  known  when  the  law  was 
enunciated  which  prove  or  disprove  it.  If  our  facts  cover  a 
very  wade  range  of  phenomena,  especially  if  they  belong  to 
different  sciences  or  possibly  to  all  sciences,  then  the  gener- 
alization wiiich  groups  and  explains  them  is  called  an  hypo- 
thesis. This  is  an  effort  of  the  scientific  imagination  to  ex- 
plain the  reasons  which  lie  back  of  the  laws  themselves,  or 
to  discover  a  more  general  law.  When  new  discoveries 
have  confirmed  the  hypothesis  it  becomes  a  theory  and  a 
theory  which  stands  the  test  of  3^ears  and  to  which  excep- 
tions are  not  found  takes  its  place  among  the  accepted  body 
of  scientific  truth.  Let  me  illustrate  these  steps.  That 
carbonic-acid  gas  consists  of  27  per  cent,  oxygen  is  one  of  a 
thousand  or  more  facts  known  to  chemists.  That  any  given 
chemical  compound  always  contains  the  same  elements  in 
the  same  proportion  by  weight  is  a  law  whose  establishment 
at  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  was  attended  by  a 
long  and  spirited  controversy.  That  chemical  compounds 
consist  of  atoms  united  to  form  molecules  and  that  the  atoms 
unite  in  the  ratio  of  small  numbers  is  a  theory  which  has 
stood  the  test  of  one  hundred  years  of  verification  and 
which  seems  likely  to  become  a  part  of  the  body  of  scientific 
truth. 

The4ntellectua1  fa^ul^i^s  called  into  exercise  in  these  pro- 
cesses are  the  powers  of  observation^-of  comparison^joi^in- 
ductive  reasoning  or  generalization,  and  the  constructive 
imagination .     The  mural  qualTtTes"wIirchr'are  developed  in 


100  The  Problem  of  Method. 

scientific  work  are  patience  in  prolonged  investigation,  per- 
severance in  overcoming  obstacles,  and  openness  of  mind 
to  the  reception  of  new  truth.  It  is  not  claimed  that  these 
mental  and  moral  qualities  are  the  exclusive  possession  of 
scientific  men.  Such  a  statement  would  be  absurd.  I  do 
claim  that  any  investigation  not  conducted  in  the  scientific 
viethod  is  of  ver}^  doubtful  value.  The  dominant  motive  of 
the  scientific  worker  is  the  discovery  and  utilization  of 
truth.  To  push  out  the  boundary  of  human  knowledge,  to 
capture  some  of  the  territory  of  the  unknown  and  make  it 
known  is  his  great  aim. 

Other  motives  may  lead  him  on,  such  as  a  desire  for  fame, 
for  power,  or  for  wealth,  but  I  think  it  is  universally  ad- 
mitted that  the  joy  of  discovery  of  some  truth  new  to  the 
investigator  is  the  greatest  connected  with  his  work.  The 
rewards  of  the  scientific  w^orker  are  :  (1)  the  interest  and 
pleasure  of  his  work;  (2)  the  recognition  which  he  is  bound 
to  receive  if  his  work  is  well  done.  It  is  the  scientific 
workers  whose  discoveries  afford  the  means  of  improvement 
of  all  the  material  conditions  of  life.  Our  modern  civiliza- 
tion wntli  all  it  includes  of  material  comfort  is  a  monument 
to  the  scientific  thought  of  the  age.  It  is  not  the  rule,  how- 
ever, that  the  inventor  becomes  rich.  Neither  does  the  man 
of  science.  Agassiz  had  no  time  to  make  money.  Nor 
should  people  be  impatient  with  the  apparently  useless  dis- 
coveries made  by  men  of  science.  No  doubt  many  investi- 
gations will  never  bear  any  so-called  practical  fruit.  Yet 
many  apparently  useless  facts  brought  to  light  in  the  labor- 
atory have  upon  further  investigation  yielded  practical  re- 
sults. 

Why  then  do  we  advocate  science  in  the  schools  and  espe- 
ciall}^  in  the  secondary  schools  ? 

1.  Because  the  habits  of  mind  which  have  been  described 
and  which  are  generally  characteristic  of  scientific  men  are 


The  Problem  of  Met.hod.  101 

worthy  of  cultivation,  and  some  of  these,  notably  the  power 
of  observation,  are  cultivated  by  no  study  so  well  as  by  na- 
ture study. 

2.  The  study  of  nature  does  or  should  beget  a  love  of 
nature  and  the  love  and  study  of  nature  become  a  source  of 
perennial  happiness  to  him  whose  eyes  have  been  trained  to 
see  her  beauties. 

"To  him  who  in  the  love  of  nature  holds 
Communion  with  her  visible  forms  she  speaks 
A  various  language  :  for  his  gayer  hours 
She  has  a  voice  of  gladness  and  a  smile 
And  eloquence  of  beauty,  and  she  glides 
Into  his  darker  musings  with  a  mild 
And  healing  sympathy  that  steals  away 
Their  sharpness  ere  he  is  aware." 

Anyone  who  has  acquired  a  love  of  good  books  and  an 
intelligent  interest  in  some  branch  of  natural  history  has  two 
never-failing  sources  of  happiness. 

8.  The  study  of  science  and  the  influence  of  the  scien- 
tific method  lead  to  care  in  making  statements  and  check 
one  of  the  serious  faults  of  all  young  writers,  viz.,  the  ten- 
dency to  make  sweeping  and  exaggerated  statements.  Pro- 
fessor A.  H.  Tolman  of  the  Department  of  English  Litera- 
ture in  The  University  of  Chicago,  in  an  article  on  "Na- 
tural Science  in  a  Literary  Education,"  says  : 

"  Great  forms  of  thought,  mighty  molds  which  of  neces- 
sity give  shape  to  our  thinking  and  then  to  our  very  imag- 
inings, these  come  to  us  from  the  study  of  things,  not  from 
the  study  of  language.  Literature  itself  must  largely  find 
its  raw  material,  its  great  metaphors  and  similes,  its  vivid 
pictures  and  mighty  symbols  within  the  domain  of  natural 
science,  and  this  increasingly  as  the  years  go  by. 

' '  The  chemist' s  law  of  definite  and  multiple  proportions  ; 
the  laws  of  motion  ;  the  phenomena  and  laws  of  light,  heat, 
and  electricity  ;  the  strata,  the  glaciers,  and  the  process  Of 


102  The  Problem  of  Method. 

earth  sculpture  of  the  geologist ;  the  winds,  tides  and  ocean 
currents  ;  the  theories  of  animal  evolution  ;  the  struggle  for 
existence,  the  survival  of  the  fittCvSt ;  the  mighty  phenomena, 
the  impressive  uniformities,  the  nebular  hypothesis  of  as- 
tronomy— these  are  great  forms  of  thought  as  well  as  facts 
and  theories  of  science.  A  man  who  is  unacquainted  with 
modern  science  cannot  well  understand  the  language  of  edu- 
cated men  and  he  cannot  interpret  sympathetically  and  ade- 
quately the  literature  of  his  own  day." 

4.  The  study  of  science  develops  and  strengthens  the 
imagination  and  the  feelings.  The  person  who  studies  the 
slow  processes  of  geology  and  undertakes  to  find  out  the  age 
of  the  earth,  or  who  tries  to  grasp  the  distance  to  the  sun  as 
a  measuring  stick  with  which  to  measure  the  distance  to  the 
stars  must  exercise  imagination  in  the  highest  degree. 

A  noted  critic  said  that  two  men  whose  imaginations  were 
the  most  brilliant  of  any  of  their  day  were  Michael  Faraday 
and  Charles  Darwin. 

5.  Science  studies  appeal  to  a  certain  class  of  minds 
which  are  but  little  attracted  to  other  branches  of  study. 
These  studies  are  the  intellectual  salvation  of  some  wlio  oth- 
erwise might  perish  by  the  way." 

13.  *  *  The  address  before  the  Pedagogical  Club,  Thursday 
evening,  February  18,  was  on  '  Music  in  Education,'  by  Pro- 
fessor Calvin  B.  Cady ,  formerly  Professor  of  Music  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan,  and  now  of  this  city  (Chicago).  Pro- 
fessor Cady's  methods  differ  quite  radically  from  those  in  gen- 
eral use,  but  their  value  was  demonstrated  by  two  of  his 
pupils,  children  of  ten  or  twelve  years  of  age,  who  showed 
quite  surprising  musical  ability,  though  they  were  supposed 
.  to  lack  it  entirel}^  when  Professor  Cady  began  work  with 
them. 


The  PROBI.BM  OF  Mkthod.  108 

Professor  Cady  said  that  he  would  not  speak  as  a  musi- 
cian but  as  an  educator.  The  present  tendency  of  education 
is  development  from  within.  The  educational  world  owes 
a  great  debt  to  Pestalozzi  and  to  Froebel,  but  neither  of 
these,  nor  yet  modern  psychology,  gives  us  the  true  basis 
for  the  development  of  individuality.  This  basis  as  Profes- 
sor Cady  thinks,  is  found  in  ontology,  as  expressed  in  Mrs. 
Eddy's  Scie7ice  and  Health. 

Formerly  observation  was  the  watchword  of  education  ; 
then  apperception  took  its  place.  But  conception,  unfold- 
ing from  within,  is  the  watchword  of  the  newest  education, 
and  this  is  the  highest  of  all.  The  relation  of  this  to  music 
is  that  music  is  idea  and  not  product  of  sense  development. 
^[usic  is  conceptive  thinking,  and  hence  a  positive  factor  in 
education.  Thus  far  it  has  been  too  often  a  positive  evil, 
in  developing  vanity  on  the  part  of  the  performer  and  envy 
on  the  part  of  the  listener  ;  in  conveying  the  impression  of 
musical  consciousness  when  none  exists,  and  in  displa\'ing 
bondage  to  the  physical  instead  of  deliverance  from  it. 

The  usual  test  of  determining  whether  a  child  can  dis- 
criminate between  tones  is  no  evidence  of  musical  conscious- 
ness. Music  is  thought  which  must  be  grasped.  The 
musical  idea  has  three  elements :  melody,  rhythm,  and  har- 
mony, each  of  which  must  be  conceived  i.nd  gradually  un- 
folded. Conceptive  development  may  be  expressed  in  two 
words  :  analysis  and  synthesis.  Analysis  is  the  individual- 
izing process  ;  synthesis,  the  unifying  one.  Attention  is 
nothing  more  than  the  developing  of  the  conceptive  pro- 
cess. 

The  simplest  thing  w^ith  which  to  begin  is  melody.  Until 
simple  melodic  phrases  can  be  conceived  there  is  no  evidence 
of  musical  consciousness.  The  second  step  is  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  rhythmic  basis  of  melody,  and  the  third  is  the 
development  of  the  harmonic  basis  underhnng  the  melodic 


104  The  Problem  of  Method. 

and  rhythmic  expression.  When  this  conceptive  founda- 
tion has  been  laid,  the  forms  of  musical  manifestation,  the 
voice,  or  the  different  kinds  of  musical  instruments  ma}^  be 
considered. 

Thus  music  is  the  expression  of  the  whole  of  life.  Its 
principles  are  as  fixed  as  those  of  geometry  and  their  devel- 
ment  as  logical.  The  danger  lies  in  considering  music  as 
one-sided,  as  the  language  of  emotion  only.  True  music 
cannot  be  the  language  of  discord  ;  it  must  express  the 
highest  unity  and  harmony. 

Professor  Cady's  fuethods  are  employed  in  the  University 
Primary  School,  and  frequent  references  have  been  made  to 
them  in  the  School  Notes  ajid  Plaits  as  published  in  the  Uni- 
versity Record.  The  issue  of  February  ]  9  gives  especial  at- 
tention to  the  work  in  music." 

14.  In  the  preface  to  "The  Essentials  of  Method,"*  the 
author  calls  attention  to  the  importance  of  analogies,  and  to 
the  fact  that  there  are  many  analogical  theories  of  mind. 
Of  these,  two  are  important  : 

1.  That  which  regards  the  soul  as  a  germ  containing  by 
involution  that  which  it  is  to  become  by  evolution— a  self- 
active  power. 

2.  That  which  regards  the  mind  at  any  given  stage  of 
its  development  as  the  resultant  of  the  variations  of  its  en- 
vironment. 

These  two  theories  are  regarded  as  but  two  figurative 
expressions  for  the  thought  that  there  is  a  method  in  the 
child,  and  a  method  in  the  subject  of  study.  The  preface 
adds  that  the  work  deals  with  the  adjustment  of  the  sub- 
ject-matter and  the  mind.  "It  seeks  to  find  the  essential 
forms  of  methods  of  instruction,  as  determined  by  the  gen- 
eral law  of  development  in  the  mind  of  the  child." 


*The  Essentials  of  Method  (1897)  by  Charles  De  Garmo.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 


The  Problem  of  Method.  105 

When  the  author  speaks  of  a  method  in  the  child  and  a. 
method  in  the  subject  of  study,  it  would  appear  that  he 
uses  the  term  method  in  the  first  case  to  signify  a  men- 
tal activity  ;  that  is,  the  psychical  change  occurring  in 
the  child  as  he  develops  toward  the  perfection  of  his  being 
under  the  stimulus  of  the  subject  ;  and  that  he  uses  the 
term  method  in  the  second  case,  to  signify  the  external 
although  invisible  activity  by  which  each  fact  or  indi- 
vidual of  the  subject  of  study  is  produced.  For  example, 
if  the  subject  of  study  is  plants,  then  it  would  be  thought 
that  if  the  author  speaks  of  a  method  in  the  subject 
of  study  he  would  mean  the  mode  of  activity  by  which 
plant  energ}'  produces  the  individuals  of  the  plant  world. 
Such,  however,  does  not  seem  to  be  his  meaning  in  exam- 
ining the  work  on  pages  91-98.  There,  by  method  in  the 
learner,  he  refers  to  the  act  of  observation ;  of  abstraction  ; 
of  induction  and  of  deduction,  etc.  This  is  in  accord  with  the 
second  view  of  method.  In  referring  to  '  'methods  with  regard 
to  the  thing  to  be  learned,"  (page  9*2),  no  reference  seems 
to  be  made  to  the  activity  by  which  each  fact  or  individual 
in  the  subject  is  produced.  The  thought  seems  to  be  that 
each  subject  or  object  is  a  whole  consisting  of  parts.  This 
being  the  case,  the  child's  mind  may  be  apprehending  the 
whole,  and  proceed  from  this  to  a  consideration  of  the  parts, 
giving  an  analytic  procedure  ;  or  it  ma}^  begin  with  the 
parts  and  move  toward  the  whole,  giving  the  synthetic 
procedure.  Method  in  this  case  is  also  mental,  and  accords 
with  the  second  view  of  method.  On  page  98,  when  speak- 
ing of  ' '  methods  with  regard  to  the  teacher' '  reference  is 
made  to  the  "  monological  "  and  to  the  "dialogical."  In 
the  same  paragraph  the  author  speaks  of  the  "  catechetical, 
Socratic,  developing  method."  Ii  seems  evident  from  the.se 
expressions  that  he  is  speaking  of  external  activities,  such 


106  The  Problem  of  Method. 

as  questions,  illustrations,  examples,  etc.,  as  method.     This 
is  according  to  the  first  view. 

The  book  consists  of  three  parts  : 

I.  Psychological  basis. 

II.  Necessary  stages  of  rational  method. 

III.  Practical  illustrations. 

Under  the  psychological  basis  the  work  presents  : 

1.  The  individual  notion. 

2.  The  general  notion. 

8.     Apperception,  or  the  assimilation  of  knowledge. 
Under  the  necessary  stages  of  rational  method,  three  are 
indicated  : 

1.  Apperception  of  individual  notions. 

2.  Transition  from  individual  to  general  notions. 

3.  The  return  of  the  general  to  individual  notions. 
Under  practical  illustrations  considerations  are  presented 

concerning  Language,  Arithmetic,  Reading,  Geography  and 
History. 

The  use  of  the  singular  form  of  the  word  method  in  the 
title  of  the  book,  indicates  that  generally  the  author  implies 
the  term  to  signify  a  definite  mode  of  mental  activity,  and 
not  the  various  devices  used  to  stimulate  it.  The  work  is 
not,  however,  free  from  the  latter  use.  In  certain  passages 
the  term  is  used  in  a  way  to  imply  that  the  author  holds  to 
the  first  view  of  method.  In  other  passages  the  inference 
would  be  that  he  holds  to  the  second  view.  In  still  others 
it  would  appear  that  he  approaches  in  his  conception  the 
third  view.  The  following  are  passages  indicating  the  first 
view  of  method  : 

1.  "It  seeks  to  find  the  essential  forms  of  methods  of 
instruction,  as  determined  by  the  law  of  development  in  the 
mind  of  the  child."      (Preface,  page  5.) 

2.  * '  Physiological  Psychology  studies  mental  acts  by 
observing  and  measuring  their  mechanical  occasion  and  re- 


The  Problem  of  Method.  107 

suits,  according  to  the  methods  of  Physical  Science." 
(Page  25.) 

3.  "When  we  recognize  the  process  of  apperception, 
however,  then  the  external  standpoint  gives  place  to  the 
internal  one,  and  the  teacher  regulates  the  amount  and 
method  of  his  instruction  by  the  psychical  needs  of  the 
child,  which  are  determined  largely  by  his  knowledge  and 
his  interests."      (Page  27.) 

4.  "It  is  not  uncommon  for  us  to  strive  to  create  inter- 
est in  study  by  appealing  to  emulation,  to  ambition,  to  love 
of  praise,  approval  of  others,  duty,  etc.,  or  by  indulging  in 
spectacular  display  in  methods.  These,  and  similar  diver- 
sions may  enable  us  to  develop  a  momentary  interest,  etc." 
(Page  31.) 

The  following  may  be  noted  as  indications  of  the  second 
view  of  method  : 

.  1.  "  But  if  the  essentials  of  right  methods  are  observed, 
there  may  be  almost  infinite  variety  of  divisions  in  teaching 
and  reciting  the  lesson,  without  vitiating  the  results." 
(Page  86.) 

2.  "  Deduction  corresponds  most  closely  to  the  stage  of 
application,  or  to  the  return  from  universals  to  new  par- 
ticulars."     (Page  92.) 

3.  "  The  method  which  begins  with  the  whole  and  pro- 
ceeds to  the  parts  is  analytical."      (Page  93.) 

The  work  presents,  however,  a  view  of  method  far  more 
important  and  fundamental  than  that  indicated  in  these  quo- 
tations which  are  here  given  to  signify  the  first  and  second 
views.  While  the  prevailing  view  in  the  work  is  not  strictly 
that  explained  in  the  present  treatise  as  the  third  view  of 
method,  it  maintains  a  close  analogy  to  it,  and  is  identical  in 
the  sense  that  a  true  method  is  a  mental  activity  returning 
in  new  shape  to  the  original  stage. 


108  The  Probi^em  of  Method. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  method  presented  is  both 
triple  in  form  and  a  return  to  itself,  in  that  it  contains 
these  stages  : 

1.  Knowing  the  particular. 

2.  Deriving  the  general  from  particulars. 

3.  Returning  with  the  general  to  the  consideration  of 
new  particulars. 

This  is  a  very  important  and  fundamental  view.  This 
triple  movement  and  return,  however,  are  found  even  within 
the  first  stage  in  which  the  mind  deals  wdth  the  individual 
notion.  This  renders  the  view  of  method  presented  in  the 
book  still  more  valuable,  becaUvSe  it  reveals  more  fully  its 
accord  wnth  consciousness  —  consciousness  being  essentially 
subject-object  or  — 

1.  A  potential  capacity. 

2.  Existence  in  a  particular  form  or  act. 

8.  A  return  to  the  subject,  in  that  the  qualities  produced 
in  this  special  form  of  activity  abide  in  the  subject  as  a  ten  - 
dency,  or  as  apperceiving  material  for  new  activities. 

In  noting  the  discussion  on  pages  45-60,  in  connection 
with  the  illustration  on  pages  94-98,  it  will  be  observed 
that  the  movement  of  mind  in  dealing  with  the  individual 
object  is  : 

1.  To  consider  the  object  practically  as  a  w^hole. 

2.  To  consider  it  "in  small  logically  connected  sec- 
tions."     (Page  55.) 

The  second  movement  is  callea  by  the  author  the  law  of 
"  Successive  Clearness."  It  is  evident  that  it  is  analytic. 
These  two  stages,  therefore,  resemble  very  closely  the  two 
that  have  heretofore  been  given,  in  the  present  work,  under 
the  third  view  of  method.  Are  the  third  and  the  fourth 
stages  indicated  ?  The  following  seems  to  denote  the  third 
stage  or  the  organization  of  the  distinctions  by  relating  them 
to  the  central  unity.      "  On  the  other  hand,  to  fail  to  asso- 


The  Problem  of  Method.  109 

ciate  the  parts  of  the  lesson  and  to  bring  them  to  conscious- 
ness as  a  logical  unity,  would  be  to  reveal  the  mind  dis- 
tracted by  the  apprehension  of  a  confused  mass  of  discon- 
nected details.  These  two  steps,  the  absorption  of  individual 
notions,  and  their  apperception,  Herbart  compares  to  the 
process  of  breathing,  calling  them  the  inspiration  and  expi- 
ration of  the  soul.  Our  maxim,  step  by  step,  has  to  do  with 
this  process,  but  it  is  incomplete,  for  it  suggests  only  the 
sub-division  without  hinting  at  its  purpose — the  clear  percep- 
tion of  individuals  and  their  proper  synthesis  in  conscious- 
ness."     (Page  56.) 

As  a  hint  of  the  fourth  stage,  (referred  to  in  the  work  on 
page  26),  the  following  may  be  quoted  :  "Next  to  the  for- 
mation of  the  series  in  instruction  comes  the  need  of  fixing 
it  in  the  mind.  This,  as  we  have  seen,  needs  time.  It 
needs  also  a  constant  attention  to  the  matter  in  hand. 
Repetition  gives  the  time,  and  skill  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  will  secure  the  attention."      (Page  60.) 

In  this  work,  therefore,  is  found  a  close  approach  to  the 
third  view  of  method. 

15.  In  the  preface  to  "  Systematic  Methodology  "*  the 
author  indicates  : 

1.  That  the  work  is  written  for  those  interested  in  un- 
derstanding the  philosophy  of  teaching. 

2.  That  the  work  is  to  be  a  systematic  treatment  of  the 
problems  of  teaching. 

3.  That  parts  I  and  II  are  adapted  to  those  wishing  to 
master  the  philosophy  of  education,  and  parts  II  and  III  to 
those  desiring  to  study  merely  the  practical  problems  that 
arise  in  presenting  the  different  branches  of  study. 

In  the  introduction  there  are  presented — 

1.     The  idea  that  methods  as  usually  given  are  varied, 


Systematic  Methodology,  by  Andrew  Thomas  Smith.     Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 


110  The  Probi^km  of  Method. 

inconsistent,  and  even  contradictory ;    that  they  lack  unity 
and  completeness. 

2.  The  author's  view  that  the  art  of  teaching  is  capable 
of  order  and  of  systematic  treatment. 

3.  The  thought  that  there  are  two  important  lines  of  in- 
vestigation necessary  to  make  methods  rational : 

a.  The  study  of  the  human  mind. 

b.  The  study  of  the  nature  of  truth. 

4.  The  thought  that  in  order  to  make  the  discussion 
complete  and  systematic,  three  things  must  be  done — 

a.  Terms  must  be  used  with  consistency. 

b.  Recommendations  must  not  be  given  in  one 
connection  and  violated  in  another. 

c.  Methods  in  the  given  subjects  must  all  obey 
certain  well  defined  fundamental  lines  applicable  to  truth 
in  general. 

5.  The  statement  that  one  aim  of  the  work  is  to  make 
clear  to  the  reader  that  all  school  studies  which  have  to  do 
with  a  bod3^  of  truth  to  be  comprehended  are  capable  of  be- 
ing taught  by  the  same  comprehensive  plan. 

6.  The  claim  that  another  aim  of  the  work  is  to  make 
clear  to  the  learner  that  there  are  many  school  subjects  which 
do  not  consist  of  a  body  of  truth  to  be  comprehended  ;  that 
these  are  either  subjects  that  may  be  called  arts,  or  subjects 
expressing  merel}^  facts  to  be  impressed  upon  the  memory. 

7.  An  explanation  of  the  terms  "  practical  method  "  and 
''device." 

8.  The  thought  that  method  is,  in  large  part,  a  derived 
science. 

Under  the  explanation  of  the  first  aim,  the  author  pre- 
sents his  view^  of  the  w^orld — "  In  the  world  of  things  about 
which  we  study,  only  individuals  exist,  while  generaliza- 
tions are  merely  contrivances  of  man  wrought  out  for  his 


The  Problem  of  Method.  Ill 

convenience  in-mastering  the  truths  concerning  this  world 
of  real,  but  .individual  things." 

This  same  view  of  the  world  is  again  presented  under  the 
discussion  of  Principle  on  page  10  :  "  We  know  nothing  of 
the  essence  of  mind,  as  we  know  nothing  of  the  essence  of 
matter.  Phenomena  alone  are  open  to  our  study.  What 
mind  or  matter  does  we  may  know,  but  not  what  either  is." 

Under  the  discussion  of  the  first  aim,  the  author  also  pre- 
sents ' '  the  comprehensive  plan  ' '  according  to  which  sub- 
jects expressing  truth  may  be  treated.  The  comprehensive 
plan  is  "  Generalizations  of  a  given  order  are  to  be  compre- 
hended only  in  the  light  of  the  appropriate  individuals  em- 
braced within  them."  This  is  termed  ''the  one  compre- 
hensive plan  or  principle  of  learning." 

The  book  consist  of  three  parts — first,  The  Nature  and 
Development  of  the  Mental  Faculties  ;  second,  The  General 
Philosophy  of  Method  ;  tliird.  Applied  Methodology. 

Under  the  first,  all  forms  of  psychological  activit}-  are 
briefly  considered. 

Under  the  second,  three  main  topics  are  discussed  : 

1.  The  notion  or  concept ;  2.  Distinctions  of  method 
based  upon  the  truths  of  the  concept  ;  3.  The  actual  real- 
ties of  school  subjects. 

Under  the  second,  four  subordinate  topics  are  treated  : 

1.  The  four  methods. 

2.  The  order  of  use  of  the  contrasted  methods. 
8.     Special  processes  in  teaching  facts  and  art. 
4.     The  concrete  and  the  abstract  in  teaching. 

Under  the  third,  attention  is  given  to  method  in  the 
various  branches. 

In  considering  whether  the  work  is  based  fundamentally 
upon  the  first,  second,  or  third  view  of  method,  it  will  be 
necessar}^  to  examine  certain  expressions. 


112  The  Probi^em  of  Method. 

On  page  5  the  author  says  :  ' '  Works  on  teaching  abound 
in  which  are  to  be  found  many  and  varied  recommendations 
in  method,  most  of  which  do  not  rise  above  the  dignity  of 
reasonable  devices."  This  seems  to  distinguish  method 
from  devices. 

On  page  11  the  following  definition  of  method  is  given  : 
"  A  method  in  pedagogy  is  a  rational  plan  or  series  of  steps 
for  effecting  results  in  teaching." 

The  first  portion  of  this  statement  seems  to  regard  method 
as  an  idea  in  the  mind  of  the  teacher  ;  that  is,  it  is  a  rational 
plan  held  in  consciousness.  The  second  portion  of  the 
statement  looks  upon  it  as  a  series  of  steps.  It  seems  that 
these  steps  are  the  outward  acts  of  the  teacher,  because 
they  are  spoken  of  as  intended  to  bring  about  results  in 
teaching. 

In  the  same  connection  this  is  said  :  * '  Method  is  pro- 
cedure according  to  principles."  This  would  seem  to  indi- 
cate that  method  is  the  outward  activities  of  the  teacher 
governed  by  a  certain  thought  or  principle. 

It  is  also  said  upon  the  same  page,  ' '  A  method  of  teach- 
ing, then,  is  procedure  in  teaching  according  to  the  princi- 
ples of  teaching."  This  implies  that  the  method  consists 
of  the  outward  activities  of  the  teacher. 

On  page  12  it  is  said  :  "  Method  is  a  way  of  reaching  a 
given  end  by  a  series  of  acts  which  tend  to  secure  it,  but 
device  refers  rather  to  a  single  action."  This  seems  to 
identify  device  and  method,  in  that  it  regards  each  as  an  act, 
and  the  assumption  is  that  this  act  is  the  outward  act  of  the 
teacher,  since  the  author  looks  upon  device  as  merely  a 
single  act,  while  method  is  a  series  of  acts. 

The  use  of  the  terms  *' analytic  method,"  "synthetic 
method,"  "inductive  method"  and  "deductive  method  " 
on  pages  111  and  113,  implies,  unless  closely  scrutinized ,  that 
method  is  the  psychological  movement  of  the  child  in  study- 


The  Problem  of  Method.  118 

ing.  A  more  careful  examination  of  these  expressions, 
however,  seems  to  indicate  that  the  author  means,  under 
the  analytic  method,  the  explanations,  questions,  sugges- 
tions, etc. ,  of  the  teacher  adapted  to  lead  the  child  to  an- 
alyze an  object  into  its  parts  or  elements.  The  same  infer- 
ence may  be  drawn  as  to  the  other  methods  mentioned. 

On  page  125  the  author  says  :  "  lyearning  should  begin 
with  individuals  and  should  return  to  individuals."  This 
outwardly  indicates  that  the  third  view  of  method  is  held. 

On  page  127  there  is  an  indication  that  the  child  is  (1)  to 
comprehend  an  object  as  a  whole,  analyze  it  into  its  parts, 
comprehend  the  whole  as  made  up  of  these  parts  ;  (2)  to 
conceive  from  several  such  wholes  a  general  belonging  to 
these  similar  objects  ;  (3)  to  discover  this  general  in  new 
objects.     This  also  hints  the  third  view  of  method. 

On  pages  286-291,  in  considering  the  subject  of  litera- 
ture, there  is  also  some  indication  of  the  third  view  of 
method.  The  first  movement  of  consciousness  is  indicated 
on  page  286,  the  second  on  page  288,  and  the  third  on  page 
291. 

On  page  809  the  following  statement  occurs — "We  know 
a  man,  a  horse,  a  house  or  a  piano  first  as  entire  things  ;  we 
are  able  to  recognize  these  things  and  give  their  names  ; 
later,  through  our  desire  to  know  them  more  fully,  we  are 
forced  to  the  necessity  of  mentally  analyzing  them.  Then, 
after  we  have  studied  the  details  of  their  parts,  we  know 
the  things  in  their  entirety  more  intimately."  This  gives 
an  indistinct  indication  of  the  third  view  of  method. 

On  page  818  the  author  says  :  ''The  method  in  this,  as 
in  all  natural  sciences,  should  be  inductive — leading  up  from 
the  individual  instances  presented  to  the  appropriate  gener- 
alizations, and  then  returning  to  apply  these  truths  in  newly 
discovered  instances."  This  likewise  suggests  the  funda-- 
mental  movement  of  consciousness. 


114  The  Problem  of  Method. 

Under  all  these  uses,  however,  there  is  no  clear  indica- 
tion that  the  author  regards  method  as  the  fundamental 
movement  of  consciousness  in  the  child.  There  is  rather 
the  indication  that  he  considers  method  to  be  the  activities 
of  the  teacher  controlled  by  the  notion  that  the  mind  ma_v 
deal  with  particular  objects  in  two  ways,  and  with  generali- 
zations in  two  ways.  Fundamentall}',  then,  the  work  is  in 
liarmony  with  the  first  view  of  method.  The  principle  that 
prevents  the  work  from  being  trul}^  organic  or  systematic 
is  the  one  mentioned  on  page  8.  "In  the  world  of  things 
about  which  we  study,  only  individuals  exist,  while  gener- 
alizations are  merely  contrivances  of  man  wrought  out  for 
his  convenience  in  mastering  the  truths  concerning  this  world 
of  real  but  individual  things."  This  idea  would  indicate 
that  a  greater  degree  of  truth  is  reached  in  sense-perception 
than  in  memory,  a  greater  degree  in  memory  than  in  imag- 
ination, a  greater  degree  in  imagination  that  in  conception, 
etc.  This  view  of  the  world  is  essentially  divisive.  Ac- 
cording to  such  a  view,  no  work  can  possess  a  fundamental 
unity.  The  reason  is  that,  according  to  such  a  view,  the 
individual  is  the  only  truth. 

This  view  of  the  world  is  again  reflected  in  the  idea  of 
the  concept  presented  on  page  98.  This  indicates  that  the 
concept  is  the  notion  of  an  individual  object  or  of  the  class. 
It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  class  is  regarded  as  merel}^  an 
aggregation  of  individual  objects,  and  is  usually,  there- 
fore, a  space-occupying  thing.  The  notion  which  applies  to 
a  class  is  regarded  as  concerned  with  the  set  of  common  at- 
tributes. This  does  not  harmonize  with  the  modern 
view  of  the  concept,  namely,  that  it  signifies  the  creative 
activity  producing  the  various  objects  of  the  class.  This 
view  of  the  world  again  reveals  itself  in  the  division  of 
method  into  four  kinds — the  analj^tic,  the  synthetic,  the  in- 
ductive and  the  deductive.     If  the  world  is  a  true  unity  in- 


The  Problem  of  Method.  115 

stead  of  being  made  up,  as  the  author  suggests  on  page  8, 
of  particulars,  there  is  a  single  method  according  to  which 
ever}^  branch  of  study  should  be  taught.  The  separative 
tendency  of  the  view  of  the  world  given  by  the  author 
on  page  8  also  manifests  itself  in  the  classification  of  sub- 
jects given  on  page  131.  It  is  further  exhibited  in  that  the 
author  presents  the  different  psychological  facts  much  as 
they  would  be  given  in  a  work  on  psychology  instead  of 
limiting  the  psychological  treatment  strictly  to  those  ele- 
ments that  reflect  the  notion  of  method  given  in  the  book. 

The  separative  tendency  of  his  view  of  the  world  also  ex- 
hibits itself  in  the  fact  that  the  special  methods  given  under 
the  different  branches  of  study  do  not  definitely  reveal  the 
idea  of  method  presented  on  pages  111  to  114.  The  view 
that  ' '  In  the  world  about  which  we  study  only  individuals 
exist,  while  generalizations  are  merely  contrivances  of  man 
wrought  out  for  his  convenience  in  mastering  the  truths 
concerning  this  world  of  real  but  individual  things,"  is  the 
ground  for  the  various  vva3^s  in  which  the  author  uses  the 
term  methods. 

After  having  explained  the  four  distinct  methods  as  given 
on  pages  111  to  114,  would  the  author  be  entitled  to  use  the 
term  method  in  any  other  sense  than  in  one  of  the  four 
given?  Would  there  not  be,  indeed,  a  tendency  on  the 
part  of  every  reader  to  seek  some  one  fundamental  sense  to 
which  these  four  could  be  reduced  ?  Let  the  following  uses 
of  the  term  be  noticed  in  order  to  decide  whether  they  are 
already  included  in  one  or  more  of  the  four  mentioned  on 
pages  111  to  114. 

On  page  8  the  author  speaks  of  '  *  the  varieties  of  so-called 
*  methods '  of  learning  as  simply  *  variations  of  one  compre- 
hensive plan.'  "  This  identifies  the  term  "  method  "  with 
the  term  "  comprehensive  plan." 

On  page  10  the  author  speaks  of  a   "  principle  ' '   as  the 


,r 


116  The  Problem  of  Method. 

"  basis  of  method."  This  distinguishes  method  from  prin- 
ciple. 

On  page  133  the  following  occurs:  "Our  method  of 
teaching,  then,  should  be  one  of  imitation  and  practice." 
What  is  the  relation  of  this  method  to  the  four  mentioned 
on  pages  111  to  114?  Apply  the  same  question  to  the  use 
of  the  word  '  *  method  ' '  in  the  following  quotations  : 

Page  134,  "  It  seems  to  receive  attention  only  when  the 
study  is  one  that  requires  in  its  recitation  some  special 
method  of  delivery,  as  in  declamation  or  singing." 

Page  141,  *'  The  only  difference  between  childhood  and 
manhood  in  regard  to  these  methods  is  the  difference  in  the 
predominant  element.  Both  methods  should  be  employed 
always."  The  author  here  refers  to  the  concrete  and  the 
abstract  methods. 

Page  146,  "The  product  secured  through  such  direct 
study  should  be  compared  with  the  products  secured  by  the 
other  pupils  through  a  similar  method  of  study." 

Page  167,  "  This  method  of  procedure  robs  the  drawing 
class  of  its  mechanical  drudgery." 

Page  249,  "It  is  not  the  ancient,  stereotyped  method  of 
parsing. ' ' 

Page  257,  "The  child's  method  of  study";  "a  method  of 
testing  "  ;   "the  written  method  of  recitation." 

Page  263,  "  History  is  a  methodical  record  of  the  impor- 
tant events  which  concern  a  community  of  men." 

Page  331,  "  To  this  end  we  should  adopt  what  is  called 
the  scientific  method  of  counting  rather  than  the  given 
method." 

On  account  of  the  view  that  the  world  consists  of  real  but 
individual  things  and  that  there  are  no  generals  in  reality, 
the  distinction  is  made  into  subjects  expressing  truth,  those 
expressing  facts  and  those  that  are  merely  form.  This 
leads  to  a  variety  of  method.     In  consequence,  the  book 


The  Problem  of  Method. 


ir 


does  not  present  one  fundamental  method.  The  tendency 
of  the  book  is  to  lead  the  student  to  regard  method  as  the 
outward  activity  of  the  teacher  controlled  by  the  principles 
belonging  to  the  subject  of  stud}'. 

16.  In  "  Scientific  Method  in  Education-'^  the  "  scientific 
method"  is  held  to  be  an  attitude  of  the  mind.  Thus  on 
page  144  it  is  defined  as  follows:  '*  Scientific  method  is 
the  method,  the  attitude  of  mind  that  makes  a  search  for 
the  principle  under  which  facts  and  observations  may  be  ex- 
perienced in  their  relations  and  made  vSignificant."  This  is 
seen  to  refer  to  the  psychological  activities  of  the  learner. 
It  does  not,  however,  indicate  a  process  of  the  mind  as  given 
by  Mr.  Cramer  in  the  ''  Method  of  Darwin,"  page  30. 

Mr.  Cramer  gives  the  '*scientfic  method"  as  "observa- 
tion, induction,  deduction  and  verification."  In  both  cases, 
however,  the  view  of  method  is  that  which  has  been  termed 
the  second  view  in  that  it  relates  to  the  psychological  activ- 
ity of  the  learner.  Often  in  the  discussion  the  first  view  of 
method  appears.  The  following  are  examples  :  "Educa- 
tional method  to  be  of  worth  should  be  scientific  method 
applied  to  the  art  of  teaching. — Page  147.  "  The  return  to 
old  methods  of  instruction  and  school  management,  the 
repudiation  of  the  theories  which  have  issued  from  in- 
vestigation of  biology  and  psychology  have  at  once  indi- 
cated that  the  theories  have  been  found  wanting  because  of 
the  readiness  with  which  they  were  constructed  from  the 
few  facts." — Page  152.  "The  application  of  the  method  of 
science  to  research  in  the  social  heritage  of  the  child  of  to- 
day."— Page  154.  ' '  Many  individual  teachers  in  the  schools 
of  this  country  are  in  intelligent  sympathy  with  the  aims 
and  w^ays  of  scientific  method  as  applied  to  education."  — 
Page  155. 


*  Scientific  Method  in  Education,  by  Ella  Flagg  Young,  in  Volume  III.  of  the 
Decennial  Publication,  published  by  the  University  of  Chicago  Press. 


118  The  Problem  of  Method. 

The  second  view  of  method  is,  however,  more  prominent 
in  the  article.  The  definition  of  the  scientific  method  given 
above  indicates  the  second  view.  The  following  are  also 
examples  of  that  view  : 

"The  method  of  the  teacher  is  simply  an  attitude  of 
the  mind  like  that  of  the  scientist. ' ' — Page  147.  ' '  To  teach 
children  necessitates  a  knowledge  of  the  mind,  the  law  of 
mental  activity." — Page  148.  "The  first  element,  the 
children,  necessitates  a  readiness  on  the  part  of  the  teacher 
in  interpreting  the  contents  of  mind,  clear  vision  as  to 
their  method,  and  a  sympathetic  understanding  of  general 
conditions  which  are  indicated  not  only  by  language  ex- 
pression but  also  by  bodily  expression." — Page  150. 
*  *  There  should  be  an  acquaintance  with  this  which  has 
been  obtained  by  the  psychologic  method  ;  that  is,  through 
investigation,  through  observation  of  sequences,  and  also 
by  the  logical  method,  that  is.  through  making  conscious 
standards,  or  norms,  of  the  ends  toward  which  the  psy- 
chological material  points." 

"  The  two  aspects  of  a  subject  gained  by  these  two  lines  of 
approach, may  be  called  the  method  of  the  sub- 
ject."—Page  151. 

' '  A  growing  understanding  of  the  method  by  which  the 
mind  works  and  develops  shows  it  to  be  the  inductive  method 
of  the  scientist." — Page  154. 

The  third  view  appears  but  once  in  the  discussion.  It  is 
then  only  incidental.  It  is  indicated  in  the  following  :  "As 
one  does  not  become  a  botanist  or  a  zoologist  by  beginning 
with  the  principles  and  data  of  pure  science,  so  one  cannot 
understand  the  life  process  of  the  soul  if  there  be  no  orig- 
inal observation  of  the  activity  of  the  mind  preceding  the 
study  of  psychology.  As  in  the  other  sciences,  the  purely 
scientific  study  must  be  followed  by  a  return  to  such  material 
as  formed  the  basis  of  observation  and  experience  in  the 


The  Problem  of  Method.  119 

first  stage,  so  in  psychology  the  applied  science  must  follow 
the  pure  science.  In  the  study  of  psychology,  the  teacher 
must  go  through  three  stages :  first,  the  observational  and  in- 
trospective ;  second,  the  purely  scientific  and  experimental  ; 
third,  the  applied,  which  is  generally  termed  educational 
psychology.  He  does  not  go  through  the  third,  he  enters 
into  it."— Page  149. 


120  The  Probi^em  of  Method. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


METHOD  IN  A  BRANCH  OF  STUDY. 

One  who  enters  upon  an  investigation  of  method  in  a 
branch  of  study  is  assumed  to  be  familiar  with  the  facts  of 
the  subject.  Upon  this  basis  he  investigates  the  essential 
features  that  give  organization  to  the  subject. 

These  essential  features  may  be  held  to  be — the  central  idea 
of  the  subject ;  the  scope  as  determined  by  the  central  idea  ; 
the  divisions  and  subdivisions  as  determined  by  the  central 
idea  ;  the  relative  importance  of  the  divisions  and  subdi- 
visions as  determined  by  the  central  idea. 

The  act  of  the  pupil  in  learning  a  fact  of  the  subject  so 
characterized  constitutes  the  fifth  element.  This  would  re- 
sult in  special  mental  effects.  These  mental  effects  consti- 
tute the  sixth  aspect  of  the  method  in  a  branch  of  stud}-. 

There  are  certain  rational  means,  to  a  large  extent  pecu- 
liar to  each  subject,  for  stimulating  and  guiding  the  pupil's 
process  of  learning  the  subject.  The  method  in  a  subject, 
therefore,  includes  : 

I.  The  Organizing  Principle  of  the  Subject. 

II.  The  Scope  of  Material. 

III.  The  Divisions. 

IV.  The  Relative  Importance  of  the  Divisions. 

V.  The  Mental  Process  in  Learning  a  Fact  of  the  Sub- 
ject. 

VI.  The  Mental  Effects. 

VII.  The  Means  or  Devices. 

Of  these  the  central  or  organizing  principle  is  predomi- 
nant.   It  determines  the  scope,  the  divisions  and  subdivisions 


The  Problem  of  Method.  121 

and  relative  importance.  It  contributes  in  determining  the 
process  in  the  child's  mind  ;  the  effect  produced  in  the  mind 
of  the  child  ;  and  the  devices  to  be  emploj'ed.  The  first 
four — the  organizing  principle,  the  scope,  the  divisions  and 
subdivisions  and  the  relative  importance  relate  to  the  branch 
of  stud}'.  The  fifth  and  sixth  relate  to  the  mind  of  the 
learner.  The  seventh  is  a  stimulus  to  the  mind  of  the  learner 
in  mastering  the  subject  matter.  It  is  identified  on  the  one 
hand  with  the  knowledge  of  the  pupil,  and  on  the  other  hand 
with  the  nature  of  the  subject  matter.  These  characteris- 
tics of  method  in  any  branch  of  study  may  be  illustrated  b}^ 
the  subject  of  composition. 

METHOD    IN    COMPOSITION. 

I.  In  composition  the  organizing  principle  is — developing 
thought  expressed  in  developing  language  for  the  purpose 
of  communication. 

II.  The  scope  of  composition  is  that  range  of  material 
possessing  the  distinguishing  mark  of  composition,  that 
which  differentiates  composition  from  other  language  studies. 
This  material  is  found  to  include  an  attribute  which  unifies 
composition  with  all  other  language  studies  and  an  attribute 
which  unifies  it  with  all  existence.  The  first  is  the  par- 
ticular attribute  ;  the  second,  the  general  ;  and  the  third, 
the  universal. 

III.  The  divisions  in  composition  must  be  genetic  ;  that 
is,  they  must  involve  the  organizing  principle.  The  funda- 
mental division  is  therefore  into  developing  content,  and 
developing  expression.  The  developing  content  then  dif- 
ferentiates into  developing  purpose  and  developing  thought. 
The  form  or  expression  differentiates  into  changing  audible 
expression  and  changing  visible  expression.  Both  form 
and  content  manifest  nian}^  other  subdivivsions. 

IV.  The  relative  importance  of  these  divisions  and  sub- 


122  The  Proble^i  of  Method. 

divisions  is  determined  by  the  degree  to  which  the}-  mani- 
fest the  organizing  principle  of  the  subject. 

V.  In  composition,  as  is  the  case  in  all  other  branches 
of  study,  the  fifth  essential  element  is  the  psychological  pro- 
cess ill  the  7nind  of  the  learner. 

1.  The  process. 

The  first  step  in  the  process  is  the  objectification  of  a 
thought.  The  following  paragraph  may  be  used  in  illus- 
tration : 

"  The  word  *  noise  '  is  derived  from  a  lyatin  word  meaning 
nausea,  through  a  French  word  meaning  quarrel.  The  sig- 
nificance in  each  of  these  derivations  is  that  of  the  negative. 
Noise  is  sound  that  is  not  rhythmical.  The  movement 
of  neural  life  and  also  of  mental  life  is  marked  by  rhythm. 
A  noise  is,  therefore,  in  a  certain  sense,  a  quarrel  with  these 
movements  in  that  it  hinders  the  natural  process.  Ev^en 
rhythmical  sound  becomes  noise  if  it  tends  to  hinder  or  to 
annul  a  rational  process  entitled  to  occur  at  the  time.  Thus, 
sweet  music,  or  a  well-modulated  conversation,  if  interfering 
with  a  required  explanation,  conversation,  slumber,  or  rest 
of  an  invalid,  is,  under  the  circumstances,  a  noise.  Any 
sound,  then,  which  quarrels  with  a  required  rational  pro- 
cess is  a  noise  and  a  damage." 

2.  The  analysis  of  the  process. 

a.  In  the  given  case,  the  first  stage  in  the  process  is 
the  indistinct  projection  of  the  subject  in  language.  There 
is  no  separation  of  content  and  form.  If  the  idea  of  the 
object  is  present,  the  term  itself  seems  to  be  inseparably 
with  it.  If  a  distinction  is  thought  in  the  content,  as  that 
noise  is  a  lack  of  rhythm,  the  thought  does  not  precede  the 
language  appropriate  to  the  thought.  The  language  is 
there  contemporaneously  with  the  thought.  The  self  may 
be  said  to  think  in  words. 

Composition  is  one  of  the  best  subjects  by  which  to  illus- 


The  Problem  of  Method.  123 

trate  the  doctrine  that  the  first  stage  of  conscionsness  is  a 
dim  apprehension  of  a  fused  unity.  The  above  paragraph 
when  first  created  was  a  fused  union  of  expression  and 
meaning. 

The  writer  may  have  thought  spontaneously  of  the  noise 
of  a  whistle,  the  stimulus  being  present.  The  object 
thought  of  and  the  expression  were  known  as  one.  Then 
there  arose  the  conception  of  noise,  but  the  word  was  there 
embodying  the  concept. 

The  thought  of  noise  as  a  damage  was  the  stimulus  for 
the  purpose,  and  in  a  subconscious  process  the  writer 
thought  of  mankind  as  not  knowing  that  noise  is  a  damage  ; 
created  the  ideal  of  mankind  as  knowing  it  thus  ;  desired 
the  ideal  condition  and  then  chose  it.  The  purpose  to  com- 
municate the  thought  of  noise  as  a  damage  seemed  too  gen- 
eral and  the  writer  spontaneously  limited  it  to  the  purpose 
to  explain  the  kinds  of  noises  in  general  that  are  damaging. 
The  purpose  had  now  become  conscious  and  definite. 

This  describes  the  psychological  process  by  which  a  self 
imposes  upon  itself,  at  first  unconsciously,  and  then  con- 
sciously, a  purpose.  It  also  reveals  the  interaction  of  theme 
and  purpose.  Often  a  general  theme  arises  in  conscious- 
ness which  stimulates  a  definite  purpose.  This  more  exact 
purpose  determines  the  limits  of  the  theme.  It  is  this  sec- 
ond theme  which  is  expressed  in  discourse,  not  the  first. 
This  gives  the  purpose  as  arising  first  and  the  theme  second 
in  the  process  of  creating  discourse  when  the  process  arises 
spontaneously. 

If  the  creation  of  the  discourse  is  assigned  from  without 
the  purpose  precedes  the  theme.  Thus  discourse  always 
expresses  a  theme  limited  and  characterized  by  the  purpose. 

The  purpose  and  the  special  theme  having  been  created 
in  the  case  given,  the  writer  entered  upon  the  stage  of 
thinking  the  subject  as  a  whole,  in  conceiving  it  as  nega- 


124  The  Problem  of  Method. 

tive  ;  this  was  succeeded  by  the  stage  of  distinction  in  think- 
ing noise  to  be  negative  when  lacking  rhythm,  and  when 
possessing  it  under  given  circumstances.  To  this  stage  suc- 
ceeded the  one  in  which  all  distinctions,  while  held  in  con- 
sciousness, were  unified  in  the  one  object  characterized  as 
negative.  As  each  distinction  in  thought  arose,  it  appeared 
clothed  in  its  own  language.  Thus,  at  the  conclusion  of 
this  movement,  content  and  form  are  fused.  The  para- 
graph, as  it  exists  now  in  space  is  a  fused  product,  the  re- 
sult of  the  first  stage  of  consciousness,  although  all  three 
stages  have  appeared  in  the  process  of  creating  this  product. 
That  was  to  be  expected,  however.  If  the  three-fold  move- 
ment is  native  to  consciousness  all  three  wnll  be  reflected  in 
the  first  movement  itself. 

b.  The  one  who  has  written  the  paragraph  now 
enters  upon  the  second  stage — that  of  distinction.  Giv- 
ing attention  to  the  constructed  paragraph,  he  begins  to 
differentiate  it  into  form  and  content.  In  doing  so  he  enters 
upon  the  second  stage  of  the  process  in  composition.  In 
giving  attention  to  the  expression  as  it  is,  the  process  is  ab- 
stracting. This  expression  is  then  distinguished  from  its 
meaning  (discrimination).  Other  similar  expressions  are 
reacted.  Each  of  these  reacted  expressions  is  discriminated 
from  the  meaning  and  from  the  original  expression.  This 
terminates  the  second  stage. 

c.  These  different  expressions  are  compared  with  one 
another  and  with  the  meaning.  In  this  comparison  the 
mind  enters  upon  the  third  stage — that  of  unifying.  The 
mind  judges  as  to  the  most  appropriate  expression,  and  de- 
cides as  to  the  ground  for  considering  this  expression  the 
most  appropriate.  This  concludes  the  process  in  composi- 
tion. 

In  the  given  paragraph  the  following  may  be  noted  as 
activities  which  exhibit  the  second  and  third  stages  : 


The  Problem  of  Method.  125 

a.  Consideration  of  the  paragraph  as  a  whole.  Has 
the  paragraph  unity  ?  That  is,  does  every  sentence  bear 
upon  the  subject  noise  f  In  answering  this  question,  sen- 
tence four  may  be  studied.  At  first  it  may  seem  that  in 
this  sentence  nothing  has  been  given  concerning  noise,  yet 
if  the  sentence  is  taken  in  its  connection  with  the  preceding 
one,  it  is  found  that  rhythm  is  given  as  the  positive  of  noise. 
The  w^ords  of  transition  should  be  near  the  beginning  of 
the  sentence  vSo  as  to  make  the  connection  between  the 
thoughts  evident  at  once.  Thus  the  second  sentence  may 
be  rearranged  and  combined  with  the  third  so  as  to  read  as 
follows  :  * '  Each  of  these  derivations  signifies  the  negative, 
i.  e.,  noise  is  sound  that  is  not  rhythmical."  In  the  fourth 
sentence  the  transitional  word  is  rhythm,  so  it  may  be 
changed  to  read,  ' '  Rhythm  is  the  characteristic  of  neural 
and  also  of  mental  life." 

After  these  changes  have  been  made,  the  paragraph  will 
appear  as  follows  : 

The  word  ' '  noise  ' '  is  derived  from  a  Latin  word  meaning 
nausea  through  a  French  word  meaning  quarrel. 

Each  of  these  derivations  signifies  the  negative  ;  i.  e., 
noise  is  sound  that  is  not  rhythmical. 

Rhythm  is  the  characteristic  of  neural  and  also  of  mental 
life.  A  noise  is,  therefore,  in  a  certain  sense,  a  quarrel 
with  these  movements  in  that  it  hinders  the  natural  process. 
Even  rhythmical  sound  becomes  noise  if  it  tends  to  hinder 
or  to  annul  a  rational  process  entitled  to  occur  at  the  time. 

Thus,  sweet  music,  or  a  well-modulated  conversation,  if 
interfering  with  a  required  explanation,  conversation,  slum- 
ber, or  rest  of  an  invalid,  is,  under  the  circumstances,  a 
noise.  Any  sound,  then,  which  quarrels  with  a  required 
rational  process  is  a  noise,  and  hence  a  damage. 

b.  Consideration  of  the  details. 

(1.)     Attention  is  given  to  the  fact  that  the 


126  The  Problem  of  Method. 

word  "word"  occurs  three  times  in  the  first  sentence. 
This  may  be  modified  by  using  for  the  second  the  word 
*'  term,"  and  for  the  third  the  word  "  expression." 

The  word   "meaning"    occurs   twice    in   this   sentence. 
*'  Signifying"  and  "  denoting"  may  be  used  instead. 

(2.)  In  the  second  sentence  the  expression 
"  words"  may  be  employed  instead  of  "  derivations." 

(3.)  After  the  word  "rhythmical"  the  follow- 
ing may  be  inserted  :  ' '  Noise  may  lack  rhythm  in  being 
too  monotonous,  as  is  often  the  case  with  heathen  music,  or 
it  may  manifest  an  unregulated  and  excessive  variety." 

(4.)  The  words  "neural  action"  and  "mental 
process"  ma}^  be  used  instead  of  "neural"  and  "mental 
life." 

(5.)  After  "  mental  process  "  insert,  "  This  is 
peculiarly  true  of  consciousness,  because  it  is  fundamen- 
tally subject-object  ;  that  is.  an  existing  condition,  a  de- 
parture from  it,  and  a  return  to  it." 

(6.)  Instead  of  the  expression,  "  These  move- 
ments in  that  it  hinders  the  natural  process,"  the  following 
may  be  given  :  '  *  The  alternate  ebb  and  flow  of  nervous  re- 
sponse and  with  the  rhythmical  process  in  sense-perception." 

(7. )  The  expression,  ' '  To  annul  or  even  to  hin- 
der," may  be  used  instead  of  "  to  hinder  or  to  annul." 

(8.)  For  the  expression  "a  rational  process 
entitled  to  occur  at  the  time,"  may  be  substituted  "  an  ac- 
tivity higher  than  the  sensuous  response  to  rhythmical 
sound,  or  one  in  the  interest  of  such  higher  activity." 

(9.)  After  the  expression  "  modulated  conver- 
sation," there  may  be  inserted  "  or  any  similar  rhythmical 
activity." 

( 10. )  In  the  last  sentence  after  the  word  '  'and' ' 
the  term  "hence"  may  be  inserted. 

As  finally  modified,  the  paragraph  will  appear  as  follows  : 


The  Problem  of  Method.  127 

The  word  "  noise"  is  derived  from  a  Latia  term  signify- 
ing nausea,  through  a  French  expression  denoting  quarrel. 
Each  of  these  words  signifies  the  negative,  i.  e.,  noise  is 
sound  that  is  not  rhythmical.  Noise  may  lack  rhythm  in 
being  too  monotonous,  as  is  often  the  case  with  heathen 
music,  or  it  may  manifest  an  unregulated  and  excessive 
variety .  Rhythm  is  the  characteristic  of  neural  action  and 
also  of  mental  process.  This  is  peculiarly  true  of  conscious- 
ness because  it  is  fundamentally  subject-object  ;  that  is,  an 
existing  condition,  a  departure  from  it,  and  a  return  to  it. 

A  noise  is,  therefore,  in  a  certain  sense,  a  quarrel  with 
the  alternate  ebb  and  flow  of  nervous  response  and  with 
the  rhythmical  process  in  sense-perception.  Even  rhythm- 
ical sound  becomes  noise  if  it  tends  to  annul  or  even  to  hin- 
der an  activity  higher  than  the  sensuous  response  to  rhythm- 
ical sound,  or  one  in  the  interest  of  such  higher  activity. 

Thus,  sweet  music,  or  a  well-modulated  conversation,  or 
any  similar  rhythmical  activity,  if  interfering  with  a  re- 
quired explanation,  conversation,  slumber,  or  rest  of  an  in- 
valid, is,  under  the  circumstances,  a  noise. 

Any  sound,  then,  which  quarrels  with  a  required  rational 
process  is  a  noise,  and  hence  a  damage. 

The  process  of  producing  this  new  form  of  the  paragraph 
involved  (1)  abstraction  (noticing  a  given  expression);  (2) 
abstraction  (separating  this  expression  from  its  meaning); 
(8)  discrimination  (holding  the  expression  and  meaning 
apart  in  the  one  act  of  consciousness);  (4)  memori- 
zation (reacting  or  creating  another  or  other  expressions 
for  the  same  meaning);  (5)  discrimination  (holding  each 
-of  the  new  expressions  apart  from  the  meaning  and  from 
the  other  expressions).  This  practically  concludes  the  sec- 
ond or  separative  stage. 

The  mind  then  enters  upon  the  third  stage.  This  in- 
volves (1)  comparison,  (the  act  of  considering  the  expres- 


128  The  Problem  of  Method. 

sions  as  to  their  relative  fitness  to  communicate  the  mean- 
ing); (2)  judging,  (the  act  of  deciding  upon  the  most  ap- 
propriate expression);  (3)  deductive  reasoning,  (the  act  of 
becoming  conscious  of  the  ground  or  general  principle  for 
the  judgment). 

Further  modification  of  the  paragraph,  even  in  a  single 
respect,  would  also  involve  both  the  sec:ond  and  third  stages 
of  the  language  process. 

The  entire  process  is — (first  stage)  (1)  consciousness  of 
a  general  theme  ;  (2)  limitation  of  a  general  theme  ;  (3) 
construction  of  a  purpose  to  communicate  (consciousness  of 
a  limit  in  those  to  be  addressed,  idealization  of  condition  in 
which  the  limit  is  removed,  desire  for  that  condition,  choice 
of  the;desired  condition;)  (4)  consciousness  of  the  theme  as 
adapted  to  the  purpose  ;  (5)  apprehension  of  the  theme  as 
an  indistinct  w^hole  ;  (6)  abstraction,  or  the  analysis  of  the 
theme  into  its  elements  regarding  each  one  as  distinct;  (7) 
judgment  that  a  given  element  is  the  central  or  character- 
istic element ;  (8)  conception  or  the  knowledge  of  this  cen- 
tral element  as  manifesting  itself  in  varying  degrees  in  each 
of  the  other  elements.  (In  all  this  process  the  thinking 
was  in  language  so  that  as  the  thought  was  produced  the 
corresponding  language  was  created.  The  consequence  is 
thatjthe  thought  exists  expressed  and  has  become  an  object 
for  the  mind's  activity  in  the  second  and  third  «5tages  of  the 
language  act,  which  stages  appear  as  follows):  (9)  abstrac- 
tion of  some  element  of  expression  ;  (10)  abstraction  of  this 
element  from  its  meaning  ;  (11)  discrimination  of  this  mean- 
ing and  expression  ;  (12)  remembering  of  the  constructing 
of  similar  expressions  ;  (13)  discriminating  each  of  these 
from  the  meaning  and  from  each  other  ;  (end  of  the  second 
or  separative  stage);  (14)  comparing  the  expressions  as  to 
their  fitness  to  express  the  meaning  ;  (15)  judging  the  ex- 
pression most  appropriate  to  the  meaning  ;    (16)  reasoning 


The  Problem  of  Method.  129 

deductively  as  to  the  ground  for  the  judgment  ;   (the  end  of 
the  third  stage). 

VI.  Among  the  rnental  effects  to  be  produced  by  composi- 
tion, the  following  may  be  noted  : 

1.  As  related  to  the  whole. 

The  establishment  of  the  first  stage  of  the  language 
•activity  as  a  habit.  (^Psychology ,  Dewey,  page  211.)  This 
involves  sense-perception  of  the  expression  ;  the  imaging  or 
thinking  of  the  meaning  in  an  indefinite  way  ;  the  think- 
ing of  the  meaning  in  more  definite  form  ;  the  creation  of 
a  distinct  purpose ;  the  expression  of  the  meaning  as 
adapted  to  the  purpose  ;  the  thinking  of  the  language  and 
its  correspondence  to  the  meaning. 

2.  As  limited  to  the  separate  elements  : 

a.  Meaning  or  content. 

Distinct  knowledge  of  the  purposes  of  discourse. 

Knowledge  of  the  three  kinds  of  objects  (objective,  sub- 
jective and  figurative)  and  of  the  four  subordinate  kinds — 
(individual  object  changing,  etc.) 

Fuller  knowledge  of  the  various  attributes  and  relations 
of  objects. 

Emphasis  of  the  relations  of  (1)  fused  unity  (2)  differ- 
ence, and  (3)  unity  after  difference. 

A  strong  sense  of  order  in  the  unfolding"  of  an  action  or 
of  an  object. 

A  consciousness  of  the  central  law  of  discourse — unity 
(purpose) — and  of  subordinate  laWvS — selection,  order  com- 
pletion, coherence  and  proportion. 

A  tendency  to  have  a  conscious  center  in  all  discourse. 

The  notion,  that  each  sentence,  paragraph  and  entire 
selection  has  a  center. 

Etc. 

b.  Expression. 


130  The  Problem  of  Method. 

A  clearer  idea  of  the  three  kinds  of  language  and  the  four 
forms  of  discourse. 

The  creation  of  a  tendency  to  brevity. 

A  refinement  of  taste  in  the  use  of  words. 

The  rendering  of  iteration  purposive. 

The  rendering  of  slang  useless. 

Satisfaction  on  account  of  the  best  field  for  objectifying. 

Etc. 

c.  The  correspondence  of   meaning   (purpose   and 
thought)  and  expression. 

The  habit  of  self-examination  as  a  test  in  the  use  of 
words. 

Satisfaction  in  the  knowledge  of  the  thought  of  the  race 
as  expressed  in  words. 

VII.  The  devices  in  a  branch  of  study  are  general  and 
special.  The  general  device  or  means  is  the  organized  course 
of  study.  This  general  device  in  composition  may  be  given 
as  follows  : 

The  Course  of  Study  in  Composition. 

stages  in  the  primary  grades. 

The  First  Stage. 

First  and  Second  Grades. 

In  the  first  stage  of  composition,  conversation  is  promi- 
nent. The  effort  is  to  have  the  child  acquire  the  correct 
use  of  language  without  giving  attention  to  its  structure  or 
to  the  principles  underlying  the  structure.  The  result  is  that 
the  child  is  intent  upon  communicating  only,  and  meaning 
and  form  are  practically  fused.  During  this  stage  there 
should  be  a  strong  effort  to  awaken  the  sense  of  the  value  of 
power  in  conversation,  and  the  sense  of  the  importance  of  the 
English  language.     The  conversation  is  at  times  to  be  or- 


The  Problem  of  Method.  131 

dered,  in  that  the  teacher  selects  the  objects,  and  decides 
upon  the  successive  topics. 

This  is  for  the  purpose  of  making  the  child  familiar  with 
thoughtful,  regulated  conversation  manifesting  law.  At 
other  times  the  conv.ersation  is  to  be  more  fully  under 
the  choice  of  the  child,  in  that  he  will  select  the  object  and 
determine  the  successive  topics.  This  will  be  favorable  to 
his  spontaneity.  In  bringing  about  conversation  upon  any 
subject,  the  pupil  will  be  led  to  objectify  freely  his  thought 
in  language.  The  teacher  will  then  aid  him  in  changing 
the  meagre,  or  profuse,  or  otherwise  inartistic  forms  into 
clear,  concise  and  refined  expression.  Much  conversation 
centers  in  the  systematic  construction  of  a  series  of  sen- 
tences expressing  the  successive  phases  of  an  activity  in 
nature,  or  in  the  life  of  man,  viewed  as  returning  to  its  be- 
ginning phase.  Conversation  also  arises  in  the  form  of 
the  free  reproduction  of  stories  read  or  told  by  the  teacher. 
The  conversational  aspect  of  the  work  may  be  supplemented 
by  its  reproduction  in  script  or  print  upon  the  board  ;  by 
the  expression  in  script  or  print  of  sentences  slowly  con- 
structed concerning  an  inanimate  object,  plant  or  animal 
being  studied,  and  by  the  combination  of  these  sentences, 
and  their  formation  into  paragraphs.  Conversation,  and 
also  all  the  more  definite  forms  of  work  mentioned  as  be- 
longing to  this  first  stage,  may  be  both  strengthened  and 
refined  by  the  consideration  of  songs,  poems  and  artistic 
prose. 

Five  lines  of  work  are  thus  implied  : 

1.  Ordered  conversation  on  objects  selected  by  the 
teacher. 

2.  Conversation  on  objects  chosen  b}^  the  child. 

3.  The  learning  of  selections  of  a  high  literary  value. 

4.  Reading  to  the  children  by  the  teacher  for  the  refin- 
ing effect  of   the  language  and  thought  upon  the  pupil's 


132  The  Problem  of  Method. 

power  of  conversation,  and  for  the  purpose  of  having  the 
selections  read  and  reproduced  substantially. 

5.  The  construction  of  a  series  of  sentences  expressing 
in  ordered  sequence  the  elements  in  acts  of  nature  and  in 
the  institutions  of  society.  (Astronomy,  geometry  ;  an  act 
in  the  home  ;  an  act  in  the  school,  etc.) 

The  ordered  conversations  may  be  upon  natural  objects  ; 
upon  manufactured  objects  ;  upon  productions  in  art ;  upon 
the  various  activities  of  institutional  life,  etc. 

Among  the  objects  constituting  a  basis  for  these  ordered 
conversations  may  be  noted  the  following  : 

a.  Geographical. 

September — Equal  days  and  nights  ;  direction  ; 
the  direction  of  the  sun  at  sunset. 

October — Frosts  ;    dew  ;    the  formation  of  dew 
on  cold  surfaces. 

November — The  winds  ;    their  direction,  force 
and  temperature  (the  thermometer). 

December — The  short  days  and  long  nights  ; 
the  length  of  the  sun's  shadow  at  noon. 

January — Snow  flakes  ;  the  covering  for  plants. 

February — Freezing  and  thawing  ;    the  crum- 
bling of  clods,  rocks,  etc. 

March  — Clouds  and   their  forms  and  names; 
action  of  frost,  rain,  etc.,  on  the  soil. 

April — Rain  and  its  measurement ;  illustrations 
of  evaporation. 

May — Examination   of   a  brook  ;    its  action   in 
carrying  and  depositing  soil. 

June — Length  of  days  ;    position  of  the  sun  in 
early  morning,  at  noon  and  at  sunset. 

Examination  during  the  year  of  sand,  pebbles,  boulders, 
gravel,  shale,  limestone,  sandstone,  etc. 

b.  Biological. 


The  Problem  of  Method.  133 

(1)  Plants. 

September — Aster,  golden  rod,  mustard,  gen- 
tian, touch-me-not,  velvet  leaf,  the  various  kinds  of  mal- 
low, corn  flower,  dodder,  beech  drop. 

October — The  flowering  plants  remaining  are 
the  specimens  of  September.  During  October  the  conversa- 
tions could  be  based  upon  the  material  of  seed  distribution. 
Among  these  may  be  noted  the  sandbur,  cocklebur,  bur- 
dock, milkweed  pods,  seeds  of  dandelion,  seeds  of  maple, 
oak,  beech,  gum,  etc.  During  November,  December,  Jan- 
uar\',  February  and  March  the  conversations  could  be  based 
upon  non-flowering  plants.  Among  these  are  the  common 
puff  ball,  earth  star,  the  various  toadstools  and  mushrooms, 
ichens  (reindeer  and  others),  common  bread  mould,  shelf 
fungus,  mosses  (pigeon  wheat  preferred),  ferns,  Indian  com- 
pass plant  and  other  algae. 

April — Spring  beauty,  wind  flower,  hepatica, 
blood  root. 

Ma3' — Butter  cup,  marsh  marigold  (see  Songs 
;of  Seven),  trillium,  Jack-in-the-pulpit  (see  poem,  Indiana 
'hird  Reader,  page  191.) 

June — Dandelion,  the  various  mustards,  clo- 
rvers,  spiderworts,  iris,  wild  geranium,  water  leaf,  etc. 

(2)  Animals. 

September — Grasshoppers,  beetles. 
October — Clams,  oysters. 
November — Butterflies,   moths.     (See  book  on 

|Butterflies,  pub.  by  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.) 

December — Crayfish,  lobster. 

Januar}^ — Fishes — yellow  perch,  Jack  salmon. 

February — The  frog. 

March  —  The  wookpecker,  crow  blackbird, 
^crows,  jays. 

April — Redbird,  sparrow,  marsh  robin. 


134  The  Probi^km  of  Method. 

May — Wrens,  thrushes. 
June — Hawks,  owls. 

c.  Manufactured  objects. 

These  are  so  numerous  and  so  common  that  no 
selections  need  be  indicated. 

d.  Art. 

(1)  Architecture. 

The  dome,  the  Greek  column,  the  Roman  arch, 
the  Gothic  window,  the  spire. 

(2)  Sculpture. 

A  selection  (probably  in  picture  form)  of  an 
example  from  Oriental,  Greek,  Roman,  Mediaeval  and  Mod- 
ern Sculpture. 

(3)  Painting. 

A  selection  from  Oriental,  Greek, 'Roman,  Me- 
diaeval and  Modern  Painting. 

e.  Activities  in  Institutional  life. 

These  are  so  numerous  and  .so  accessible  that 
no  example  need  be  given. 

f.  Selections  to  be  read  to  the  children. 

(Portions  of  these  selections  may  be  committed 
to  memory  by  the  children  after  the  thought  has  been  care- 
fully worked  out.) 

"In  Time's  Swing,"  Fourth  Reader,  McGuffey's,  page 
77;  "The  Lapse  of  Time,"  Bryant's  Poems  (household 
edition),  page  75 ;  "  Freaks  of  the  Frost,"  Fourth  Reader, 
Harper's,  page  46  ;  "  The  Frost  King,"  in  "  Rhymes  and 
Jingles,"  by  Mary  Mapes  Dodge,  page  199;  "Snow."  in 
"  Rhymes  and  Jingles,"  by  Mary  Mapes  Dodge,  page  12  ; 
"  Snow  Song,"  Lucy  Larcom's  Poems,  page  123;  "The 
First  Snow  Fall,"  Literary  Selections  (Lowell),  page  320  ; 
"  Evening  Hymn,"  Second  Reader,  McGuffey's,  page  43; 
"Twilight,"  Third  Reader,  Harper's,  page  257;  "The 
New  Moon,"  Second  Reader,  Harper's,  page  161  ;    "The 


The  Problem  of  Method.  135 

boon's    Lullaby,"    Third    Reader,     Harper's,    page    39; 
^"March,"  Second  Reader,  McGuffey's,  page  139;  "March," 

,ucy  Larcom's  Poems,  page  124  ;  "  April,"  in  "  When  the 
Birds  Go  North  Again,"  by  Ella  Higginson,  page  43; 
"The  Rainbow,"  (stanza  at  the  close)  Supplementary  Sec- 
ond Reader,  Golden  Book  of  Choice  Reading  ;  ' '  The  Rain- 
)Ow,"  Fifth  Reader,  McGuffey's,  page  195;  "The  Sea- 
sons" (the  stanza  on  "Summer"),  Fourth  Reader.  Mc- 
Guffey's, page  237;  "  A  Summer  Day,"  School  Reading 
by  Grades,  page  35;  "The  Seasons"  (stanza  on  "Win- 
ter"), Third  Reader,  McGuffey's,  page  237;  "Winter," 
Lucy  Larcom's  Poems,  page  179;  "The  Seasons"  (stanza 
on  "Spring,)  Fourth  Reader,  McGuffey's,  page  237; 
"Spring,"  Third  Reader,  McGuffey's,  page  132;  "The 
Seasons"  (stanza  on  "  Autumn  "),  Fourth  Reader,  McGuf- 
e3^'s,  page  237;  "  The  Autumn  Is  Old,"  Fourth  Reader, 
Indiana  revision,  page  234.  Other  selections  expressing 
other  aspects  of  life,  both  of  nature  and  man,  may  be 
chosen. 

g.  Pictures. 
Conversations  upon  objects  similar  to  those  indicated  in 
the  foregoing  and  graded  according  to  the  time  of  year  and 
difficulty  of  use,  constitute  the  work  for  the  first  and  second 
years.  The  work  contemplates  a  definite  period  for  com- 
position of  not  less  than  ten  minutes  from  three  to  five  days 
during  the  week. 

The  Second  Stage. 

Third  Grade. 

This  second  stage,  although  also  one  of* conversation,  is 

marked  especially  b}^  the  fact  that  it  is  a  stage  devoted  to 

^r    the  discovery  of  distinctions.     Throughout,  the  pupil  is  con- 

^^cerned  with    differences,   and  is  therefore   chiefly  analytic 

^Bin  his  procedure.     During  the  year  the  work  is  to  be  so  or- 

I 


136  The  Problem  of  Method. 

ganized  as  to  lead  the  pupil  to  notice  and  to  express  himself 
as  to  the  following  distinctions  in  language  : 

1.  The  distinction  of  language  to  express  the  external  ; 
fence  ;  the  spiritual  ;  as,  I  fear  he  is  not  here  ;  the  symbolic  ; 

as,  /  am  the  vi7ie,  ye  are  the  brajiches.  These  distinctions 
are  to  be  the  more  simple  ones,  and  are  to  be  sought  in  the 
readers  and  in  general  conversation. 

2.  The  distinctions  found  in  the  separation  of  a  stanza 
or  paragraph  into  a  series  of  disconnected  sentences.  The 
first  stanza  of  Tennyson's  ^/^^/^kS^^^z^ so  separated  will  read — 

"  The  splendor  falls  on  castle  walls. 

The  splendor  falls  on  snowy  summits  old  in  story. 

The  long  light  shakes  across  the  lakes. 

The  wild  cataract  leaps  in  glory." 

3.  The  idea  of  the  sentence. 

4.  The  distinction  of  the  sentence  into  its  kinds. 

a.  The  distinction  of  each  kind  of  sentence  into  its 
two  uses — to  express  some  fact,  and  also  to  express  the  men- 
tal attitude  or  state  of  the  speaker. 

b.  The  distinction?  involved  in  w^orking  out  differ- 
ent forms  for  some  one  sentence,  as, 

The  plowman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way. 
The  weary  plowman  plcds  his  homeward  way. 
His  homeward  way  the  weary  plowman  plods. 
His  homeward  way  the  plowman  weary  plods. 
Etc. 

c.  The  distinction  of  the  sentence  into  its  elements. 

5.  The  distinction  of  the  sentence  into  its  separate 
words,  especially  the  chief  ones,  as  nouns,  adjectives,  verbs, 
etc. 

6.  The  distinctions  found  among  words,  as — 
Common  noun,  proper  noun,  etc. 

The  distinctions  under  each,  as  names  of  places,  of 
animals,  etc. 


The  Problem  of  Method.  137 

7.  The  distinctions  of  words  into  main  part,  prefix  and 
suffix. 

8.  The  distinction  between  the  current  and  the  literal 
meaning  of  w^ords.-f^ 

9.  The  distinctions  in  the  meanings  of  words  as  shown 
by  readings  from  such  works  as  Gilman's  Short  Stories  from 
the  Dictionary . 

10.  The  distinction  of  words  into  those  that  are  mere 
signs  and  those  that  are  onomatopoetic. 

1 1.  The  distinction  of  words  into  syllables. 

12.  The  distinction  of  such  words  as  to,  too,  two  ;  in, 
into  ;  is,  was,  were  ;  has,  have,  had. 

.18.  The  distinction  in  meaning  belonging  to  a  word  of 
one  form,  as  race. 

11.     The  different  sounds  belonging  to  each  letter. 

15.  The  difference  as  to  the  beginning  of  lines  in  prose 
and  in  poetry. 

16.  The  difference  found  in  the  ending  of  lines  in  poetry. 

17.  The  different  images  for  a  sentence  separated  from 
its  context,  as.      '*  It  was  standing  near  the  fence,  "f 

In  this  work  the  separate  sentence  should  be  placed  be- 
fore the  children  upon  the  blackboard.  Each  child  should 
then  construct  in  his  imagination  an  environment  which,  to 
be  full}^  expressed,  would  require  the  given  sentence  along 
with  other  sentences.  The  pupil's  thought  of  this  environ- 
ment should  then  be  expressed  in  the  form  of  a  brief  com- 
position. These  compositions  should  afterward  be  studied 
in  order  to  render  them  both  more  full  in  certain  respects, 
and  more  compact  and  brief  as  a  whole.  At  this  stage  the 
opportunity  arises  to  consider  the  different  images  and  the 
different  meanings  possessed  by  the  word  it  in  the  different 
stories. 


*See  The  Problem  of  Elementaiy  Composition,  by  Elizabeth  Sjjalding,  page  2; 
f.See  I^anguage  for  the  Grades,  by  John  B.  Wiselj',  p.  141. 


138  The  Problem  of  Method. 

18.  The  distinctions  found  in  the  successive  elements  in 
a  full  activity,  as,  an  act  in  society  ;  an  act  in  geology  or 
geography  ;  an  act  in  physics. 

19.  The  different  objects,  actions,  etc.,  mentioned  in  a 
brief  selection. 

20.  The  distinction  of  the  speaker  and  hearer  in  brief 
selections. 

21.  The  distinction  of  letters  into  their  form  and  con- 
tent, and  the  distinction  of  the  elements  of  their  content. 

22.  The  distinctions  in  the  process  of  writing  and  for- 
warding a  letter. 

23.  The  distinction  of  the  elements  of  suspense,  surprise 
and  suggestion  in  stories. 

24.  The  distinction  of  the  parts  of  a  reading  lesson  illus- 
trated by  pictures,  from  the  parts  not  so  illustrated. 

25.  The  distinction  of  the  use  of  pictures  in  description, 
from  their  use  in  illustrating  an  element  of  a  story. 

26.  The  collection  of  examples  of  simile  and  of  personi- 
fication in  the  pupils'  ordinary  language. 

27.  The  examination  of  brief  literary  selections  in  order 
to  discover  simple  examples  of  simile  and  of  personification. 

Selections  from  these  and  similar  distinctions  should  be 
carefully  adapted  to  the  development  of  the  pupil  and  of  the 
subject. 

Fourth  Grade. 

The  w^ork  in  this  stage  is  essentially  constructive.  Based 
upon  the  many  clear  distinctions  discovered  in  the  pre- 
vious stage  the  pupil  now  enters  upon  synthetic  work.  Of 
course  the  work  in  this  stage  is  not  solely  synthetic.  A 
stage  of  work  in  which  differences  are  discovered  always  in- 
volves unity.  In  like  manner,  a  stage  in  which  unity  is  the 
main  thought  is  necessarily  marked  by  many  distinctions. 
The  different  kinds  of  work  are  substantially  the  following: 

1.     The  stud}^  of  synonyms. 


The  Problem  of  Method.  139 

2.  Readings  on  the  literal  meanings  and  history  of  words 
from  such  works  as,  Palmer's  Folk- Etymology,  Trench's  The 
Shidy  of  Words,  etc. 

3.  The  elaboration  of  a  single  sentence  into  a  paragraph.^ 

a.  The  selection  of  the  sentence,  as  "The  stream 
was  very  clear." 

b.  The  enumeration  of  appropriate  details. 

c.  The  construction  of  a  paragraph  based  on  these 
details. 

(1.)     By  class  and  teacher  working  together. 
(2.)     By  the  individual  pupil. 

d.  The  analytic  study  of  paragraphs  to  discover  the 
truth  that  a  paragraph  is  merely  an  elaborated  sentence  hav- 
ing a  common  subject  and  diverse  predicates. 

e.  The  reduction  of  paragraphs  to  this  simplest  form. 
Suitable  paragraphs  for  such  reduction  may  be  found  in 

the  works  of  Irving,  Hawthorne,  etc. 

f.  The  analysis  of  paragraphs  to  discover — 
(1.)     Topic  and  attributes. 

(2.)     The  law  of  unity  and  its  relation  to  diverse 
objects,  and  to  opposites,  as  war  SiWd  peace , 

g.  The  study  of  successive  paragraphs  to  deter- 
mine— 

(1.)     That  the  topic  Hmits. 
(2.)     The  form  of  the  beginning  in  each. 
(3.)     The  mode  of  indicating  quotation. 
(4. )     The  mode  of  uniting  paragraphs. 

4.  The  construction  into  a  brief  organized  discourse  of 
some  one  of  the  series  of  separate  sentences  indicated  in  18 
under  the  work  of  the  previous  stage.  In  this  work  the 
pupils  should  be  led  to  refine  and  to  render  more  accurate  the 
sentence  and  then  to  notice  the  order  of  the  sentences  be- 
longing to  the  series,  and  to  decide  whether  it  is  the  order 


*The  Problem  of  Elementary  Composition,  by  Elizabeth  Spalding,  pages  64-75. 


140  The  Probi^em  of  Method. 

desired.  The  sentences  should  then  be  unified  by  the  use 
of  and,  for,  because,  etc.  The  different  thoughts  should 
then  be  elaborated,  the  result  being  fuller  expression.  This 
should  be  followed  by  the  organization  into  paragraphs. 

5.  Selection  of  a  particular  object,  as  a  tree,  and  a  study 
of  this  object  resulting  in  a  knowledge  of  the  following  laws 
of  the  form  of  composition  called  Description. 

a.  Formation  of  mental  picture  (Visualization.)^ 

b.  Point  of  view\  (Referring  to  place  and  distance 
of  writer  or  speaker  from  the  object  he  is  describing.) 

c.  Manner  of  describing  (mode  of  procedure.) 
(1.)     Whole  by  means  of  its  attributes. 
(2.)     Parts  by  means  of  their  attributes. 
(3.)     Reconsideration  of  the  whole. 

d.  Range  of  senses  appealed  to. 

e.  Action  in  description. 

f.  Ordering  of  attributes.  * 
(1.)     Obvious  to  obscure. 

(2.)     Physical  to  mental. 
(3.)     Near  to  remote. 

g.  Specific  language. 

h.   Purpose  of  Description. 

6.  The  examination  of  a  brief,  simple  description  of  a 
high  grade  in  order  to  discover  in  its  structure  indications 
of  the  characteristics  under  5. 

7.  The  study  of  some  simple  object  accessible  to  the  chil- 
dren and  possessing  an  interest  for  them. 

a.  This  study  is  to  lead  to  the  preparation  of  a  brief 
description  of  the  object.  The  description  is  then  to  be 
studied  in  order  to  learn  the  purpose  of  the  writer. 

b.  The  purpose  of  studying  the  description  is  to 
form  the  basis  for  deciding  whether  the  pupil  selected  just 


*  First  Steps  in  English  Composition,  by  H.  C.  Peterson,  pp.  19-26.     (A.  Flana- 
gan Co.,  Chicago.) 


The  Problem  of  Method.  141 

those  attributes  and  parts  needed  to  accomplish  his  purpose  ; 
whether  they  were  in  the  order  necessary  to  accomplish  the 
purpose,  whether  all  the  attributes  and  parts  needed  to  ac- 
complish the  purpose  were  given  and  whether  there  was  pro- 
portion of  treatment. 

8.  The  construction  of  descriptions  of  objects  when  the 
point  of  view  is  from  a  distance  (a  device  in  harmony  with 
the  first  stage  of  consciousness)  and  when  the  point  of  view 
is  near  (a  device  in  harmon}^  with  the  second  stage  of  con- 
sciousness. ) 

9.  The  examination  of  already  constructed  discourse  to 
discover  cases  of  onomatopoetic  words. 

10.  The  construction  of  onomatopoetic  paragraphs.  * 

11.  The  selection  of  one  or  more  brief  narrations  of  high 
grade,  upon  topics  of  interest  and  value  to  find  the  follow- 
ing main  laws  governing  this  form  of  ^discourse. 

a.  Essential  characteristics. 
(1.)     Change. 

(2.)     Coherence. 

b.  Theme  of  different  narrations. 

c.  Purpose. 

d.  Plot. 

(1.)   Incidents  leading  up  to  main  incident. 
(a.)  Setting. 
r.     Time. 
2'.     Place. 
(2.)     Characters. 
Use  the  plot,  as  worked  out,  in  writing  first  a  reproduction 
of  one  of  the  narratives  studied.      After  this,  work  out  a 
plot  of  an  original  story  with  the  whole  class  and  have  the 
pupils  write  the  story.     I,ater  let  each  child  write  a  plot  of 
an  original  story  and  then  write  his  own  story. 

12.  The  selection  of  a  brief  narration  of  a  high  grade, 


*  The  Problem  of  Elementary  Composition,  by  Elizabeth  Spalding,  pages  42-43. 


142  The  Problem  of  Method. 

upon  a  topic  of  interest  and  value,  and  the  examination  of 
it  to  discover  the  laws  indicated  under  11. 

13.  The  examination  of  songs  in  order  to  stimulate  and 
to  direct  effort  toward  literary  production. 

14.  The  selection  and  examination  of  letters  written  b}^ 
children  during  the  different  periods  of  English  and  Ameri- 
can History.  The  letters  selected  should  be,  in  so  far  as 
possible,  representative  of  different  classes.  They  should 
pertain  largely  to  home  life,  and  to  the  relation  of  child  to 
parent ;  of  brother  to  sister,  etc.  To  some  extent  they 
should  relate  to  society  and  to  the  church.* 

15.  Letter  Writing,  f 

The  letters  in  this  stage  should  relate  to  affairs  of  home 
and  school,  and  to  the  simple  aspects  of  society  for  chil- 
dren. They  should  be  written  to  schoolmates,  friends  in  the 
neighborhood,  friends  in  distant  regions,  parents,  brothers 
and  sisters. 

The  established  forms  of  letters  should  be  made  clear,  and 
the  work  should  enable  the  pupil  to  write  a  brief  letter  in- 
volving any  of  the  relations  above  given,  according  to  the 
accepted  form,  legible,  correct  in  paragraphing,  language, 
punctuation,  etc.,  and  obedient  to  the  laws  of  discourse. 

.  Stages  in  the  Intermediate  Grades. 

The  First  Stage. 

The  first  stage  is  not  one  of  work  in  the  sense  that  the 
teacher  attempts  actively  to  lead  the  children  into  the  com- 
prehension and  use  of  more  developed  forms  of  language. 
It  is  that  compreheUvSion  and  use  of  language  resulting  from 


*See  the  Diary  of  Anna  Greene  Winslow,  a  Puritan  girl,  ten  years  of  age.  The 
diary  contains  a  series  of  letters  written  by  her  whil -^  residing  in  Boston,  to  her 
parents,  then  residing  in  Nova  Scotia. 

t  For  additional  examples  of  letters  and  for  helpful  suggestions  on  the  pro- 
cess of  beginning  the  work  in  letter  writing,  see  pages  4-5  The  Problem  of 
Elementary  Composition,  by  Elizabeth  Spalding, 


The  Problem  of  Method.  143 

the  work  of  the  fourth  and  of  the  other  preceding  years.  The 
stage  is  one  of  fused  unit}^  although  not  so  fully  so  as  the 
first  stage  in  the  primary  grades.  Knowledge  is  always 
partial.  The  realm  of  the  unknown  is  far  more  extensive. 
The  clearly  known  in  comparison  with  the  unknown  or  the 
dimly  known  is  always  slight.  At  the  conclusion  of  the 
work  of  the  four  years  the  pupil's  comprehension  and  use  of 
language  involves  many  indistinct  aspects.  The  stage  is 
one  of  synthesis,  because  these  aspects  are  fused  into  a 
unity,  and  because  many  distinctions  are  not  noticed. 

The  Second  Stage. 
Fifth  Grade. 
The  second  stage  deals  with  the  discovery  of  distinctions 
which  are  somewhat  more  advanced  and  difficult  than  those 
considered  in  the  third  grade.  These  distinctions  are  a  de- 
velopment of  the  differences  studied  in  the  third  grade, 
and  an  unfolding  of  the  distinctions  not  known,  or  at  least 
but  dimly  known,  at  the  conclusion  of  the  work  of  the 
fourth  year.  Hence  this  stage  is  analytic.  Among  the 
distinctions  of  the  stage  are  the  following  : 

1.  The  distinction  of  words  as  to  their  current  and  their 
literal  meaning.-'^ 

2.  The  distinction  of  words  into  those  that  are  mere 
signs,  as  hat,  on,  sit,  etc.,  and  those  that  are  onomatopoetic, 
as  crash,  buzz,  etc. 

8.  The  difference  in  such  expressions  as  he,  his,  him, 
who,  cvhojii,  etc. 

4.  The  difference  in  the  form  of  the  pronoun  after  the 
verb  to  be  and  after  such  verbs  as  to  have,  to  strike. 

5.  The  difference  in  the  forms  of  comparison,  and  their 
relative  value,  as,  more  dark,  darker. 


b 


The  distinction  into  the  current  and  the  literal  meanings  may  be  aided  by 
readings  from  such  works  as  Waites'  Forgotten  Meanings. 


144  The  Problem  of  Method. 

6.  The  difference  in  significance  of  one  and  two  nega- 
tives, as  (correct  form),  I  kriow  noihi^ig  of  it ;  I  do  not  know 
7iothi7ig  of  it  (incorrect  form). 

7.  The  difference  between  an  indefinite  and  a  definite 
subject,  and  the  forms  the  succeeding  pronouns  tend  to  take, 
as  (correct  form),  "  If  HeJiry  should  carry  this  package  to 
the  store,  he  will  find,  etc.;  If  any  one  should  carry  this 
package  to  the  store  they  will,"  etc.  (incorrect  form.) 

8.  The  difference  between  the  single  and  the  double 
direct  object,  and  the  tendency  toward  different  forms  for 
the  objective,  as  (correct  form),  "  He  asked  me  to  go  ;  He 
asked  Mary  and  /to  go  (incorrect  form.) 

9.  In  the  third  grade  symbolic  language  was  distin- 
guished from  language  used  to  express  the  external,  and 
from  language  employed  to  signify  mental  states.  In  this 
stage  further  distinctions  in  symbolic  language  are  to  ap- 
pear. These  distinctions  wdll  be  found  under  both  form 
and  content.  Under  form  are  the  figurative  expressions 
belonging  to  single  words,  and  those  found  in  sentences. 

The  figurative  expressions  in  words  are  brought  about  by 
omission.  There  may  be  omission  from  the  first  of  the 
word,  from  within  the  word,  or  from  the  end  of  the  word. 
In  * '  The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal ' '  the  word  ' ga7i  is  used  instead 
of  began.  This  is  called  Aphaeresis.  This  is  also  shown  in 
you'll  for  you  will.  The  second  form  is  Syncope.  This  is 
shown  in  the  word  d  er.  The  third  is  Apocope.  An  exam- 
ple of  this  is  the  use  of  yoji  instead  of  yo7ider.  This  is  shown 
in  the  * '  Bugle  Song. ' '  Another  figurative  form  of  words 
is  that  of  combining  by  the  use  of  the  hyphen. 

In  sentences  also  figures  are  formed  by  omission,  as  in  the 
Ellipsis.  An  example  of  this  is.  The  virtues  I  admire,  in- 
stead of,  The  virtues  which  I  ad7nire.  Related  to  the  El- 
lipsis is  the  figure  called  Asyndeton.  This  is  the  omission 
of  connectives  as,    The  boy,  his  father,  his  mother,  his  sis- 


The  Problem  of  Method.  145 

ter,  are  present.  Another  form  is  obtained  by  insertinje;. 
The  general  term  for  this  is  Pleonasm,  as,  "  Th}^  rod  and 
thy  staff  they  comfort  me."  A  subordinate  form  under  this 
is  Epanalepsis.  This  is  the  repetition  of  an  expression 
after  intervening  words  or  expressions,  as,  The  sun — that 
great  luminary  of  light  and  warmth — the  sun  began  to  ap- 
pear in  its  glory.  Another  subordinate  form  is  Epizeuxis. 
This  is  the  repetition  of  a  word  or  expression  immedi- 
ately, as,  The  sun — the  sun,  the  great  contributor  of  light  and 
warmth  begaii  to  appear.  A  third  subordinate  form  is  termed 
Polysyndeton.  This  is  the  employment  of  many  connec- 
tives, as,  The  boy,  and  his  father,  and  his  mother,  and  his  sis- 
ter, are  preseiit.  The  word  or  may  be  used  in  the  same  way. 
Another  figure  under  the  form  of  sentences  is  obtained  by 
substituting  one  part  of  speech  for  another.  Among  the 
examples  often  used  are  the  following  :  She  ivill  queen  it  ; 
He  will  out- Herod  Herod. 

Symbolic  language  deals  not  only  with  the  form,  but  also 
with  the  content.  Under  the  content  the  symbolism  is 
shown  by  compariso?i,  by  association  and  by  co7itrast.  Un- 
der comparison  are  the  well  known  figures  of  Simile,  Meta- 
phor and  Allegory. 

It  has  been  held  that  the  work  on  the  simile  should  at 
first  be  oral  and  common  to  the  class.  In  the  beginning 
there  should  be  the  reading  of  simile  after  simile  and  free 
conversation  concerning  each  one  in  order  to  awaken  the 
thought  that  the  function  of  the  simile  is  merely  to  picture 
or  illustrate  the  writer's  thought,  and  that  the  thought  is 
the  prominent  thing.  In  this  discussion  it  should  appear 
that  similes  are  to  reveal  striking  likenesses  amidst  marked 
differences.  It  is  thus  seen  that  the  enjoyment  of  similes 
rests  upon  surprise. 

The  work  should  then  change,  and  the  children  should; 


14()  Thp;  Problem  of  Method. 

enter  upon  the  examination  of  literan^  productions  in  order 
to  discover  cases  of  the  simile. 

By  means  of  these  exercises  the  pupils  would  be  prepared 
to  construct  paragraphs  and  brief  compositions  involving 
similes.  In  connection  with  the  Metaphor  are  the  forms 
known  as  Personification  and  Apostrophe. 

The  work  on  personification,  as  that  on  the  simile,  may 
be  oral  and  common  at  first.  This  will  be  introductory  to 
the  examination  of  literary  productions  for  the  purpose  of 
discovering  and  studying  examples  of  personification.  The 
mode  of  work  recommended  in  connection  with  the  simile 
and  with  personification  is  mentioned  in  order  to  indicate 
the  spirit  of  work  with  all  figures  of  thought. 

Under  association  are  found  the  two  figures  spoken  of  as 
S3aiecdoche  and  Metonymy.  An  example  under  S3mec- 
doche  is,  "Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread."  An  example 
under  Metonymy  is,  "The  pen  is  mightier  than  the  sword." 
The  forms  of  symbolic  language  under  contrast  are  Anti- 
thesis and  Climax.* 

In  these  the  contrast  is  clearly  expressed.  There  are  in 
addition  the  Epigram,  the  Interrogation  and  Irony.  In 
these  the  contrast  is  merely  implied. 

These  various  distinctions  involve  mau}^  strange  terms,  as 
Aphaeresis,  Syncope,  Polysyndeton,  etc.  Shall  these  pupils 
(in  age  about  ten  years)  be  made  acquainted  with  such  un- 
usual terms?  The  difficulty  in  the  use  of  new,  long,  scien^ 
tific  words  is  not  essentially  in  their  pronunciation,  but  in 
the  clear  knowledge  of  their  content  or  exact  significance. 
When  the  meaning  is  simple  enough  to  be  considered,  the 
exact  scientific  terms  should  be  taught.  For  example,  the 
idea  expressed  by  the  word  Polys3mdeton  is  easy  of  com- 


*  111  connection  with  the  study  of  the  climax,  the  distinction  between  it  and  the 
ending  may  be  shown  by  the  examination  of  selections  involving  the  climax. 
(The  Problem  of  Elementary  Composition,  page  20.) 


The  Problem  of  Method.  147 

prehension.  After  the  meaning  has  been  worked  out  the 
exact  scientific  term  should  be  taught  and  used.  To  the 
pupil  there  is  a  distinct  pleasure  in  the  mastery  of  such  terms. 
These  terms  have  been  produced  by  the  race  in  its  process 
of  development,  and  they  have  supplied  a  distinct  need. 
To  be  able  to  comprehend  and  to  use  them  is,  therefore,  an 
act  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  which  identifies  him  with  the 
entire  race.  It  has  a  tendency  to  make  him  universal,  and 
although  he  does  not  distinctly  know  this,  he  feels  it  to  a 
certain  extent  and  experiences  pleasure  on  that  account. 
The  use  of  the  term  isosceles  triangle  identifies  the  child 
and  his  knowledge  with  the  whole  progress  of  the  subject  of 
Geometry  ;  and  it  gives  him  this  sense  of  the  imity  with  the 
universal,  much  more  than  does  the  following  expression  : 
A  space  inclosed  by  three  lines,  two  of  which  are  equal. 

10.  The  distinction  of  a  selection,  as,  the  "  Bugle  Song," 
into — 

a.  The  aim  of  the  author  in  writing  it. 

b.  The  thought  used  to  accomplish  the  aim. 

c.  The  expression. 

d.  The  adaptation  of  language  to  thought,  and 
thought  to  purpose. 

11.  The  distinction  of  the  sentence  into — 

a.  The  thought  to  be  communicated. 

b.  The  aim  of  the  writer  or  speaker. 

c.  The  adaptation  of  the  language  to  accomplish 
the  aim.  This  last  involves  the  whole  realm  of  distinc- 
tions implied  in  careful  substitutions.  For  example,  the 
pupil  may  be  considering  the  adaptation  of  the  words  in 
the  sentence.  The  prisoner' s  innocence  is  to  be  assumed.  He 
may  be  led  to  see  by  substitution  the  following  :  The  inno- 
cence of  the  prisoner  is  to  be  supposed. 

12.  The  distinction  of  the  direct  and  the  indirect  quota- 
tion, the  expressions  appropriate  and  their  relative  strength. 


148  The  Problem  of  Method. 

18.  The  distinctions  found  in  the  successive  elements  of 
the  full  activit}^  in  some  form  of  institutional  life,  as  an  act 
in  the  realm  of  business,  of  state,  etc. 

1-4.  The  distinctions  found  in  the  successive  elements  of 
a  full  activity  in  nature,  as  an  act  in  the  development  of  a 
plant. 

Selections  from  these  and  similar  distinctions  should  be 
carefully  adapted  to  the  development  of  the  pupil  and  of  the 
subject. 

The  Third  Stage. 

Sixth  Grade. 

The  work  in  this  stage  is  like  that  of  the  fourth  grade — 
essentially  constructive.  The  work  of  the  fifth  grade  being 
a  consideration  of  distinctions  more  difficult  and  more  ex- 
tensive than  those  examined  in  the  third  grade,  the  pupil, 
in  consequence,  is  now  prepared  to  enter  upon  a  higher  grade 
of  synthetic  work. 

As  was  suggested  concerning  the  work  of  the  fourth 
grade,  the  work  in  this  stage  is  not,  and  can  not  be,  solely 
synthetic.  In  constructive  work  necessarily  certain  distinc- 
tions are  l)rought  into  notice  ;  but  practically  and  mainly 
this  stage  is  a  synthetic  one  in  which  language  is  viewed  in 
the  process  of  construction. 

The  different  kinds  of  work  are  shown  by  the  following  : 

1.  A  careful  study  of  the  primary  law  of  discourse — 
unity  (purpose). 

Let  this  law  be  carefully  illustrated.  x\fter  this  has  been 
done  let  one  or  more  selections  from  discourse  be  examined 
in  order  to  show^  how  they  exemplify  this  primary  law. 

2.  A  careful  study  of  the  secondary  laws  of  discourse — 
selection,  completeness,  order. 

Relation  to  the  laws  of  coherence  and  proportion. 


The  Problem  of  Method.  149 

Carefully  and  fully  illustrate  each  of  these  laws,  and 
then  examine  brief  selections  from  discourse  in  order  to  dis- 
cover in  them  the  presence  of  these  laws. 

H.  A  careful  and  systematic  stud}'  of  the  nature  of  the 
paragraph  and   its   laws.-'^ 

a.  Examination  of  paragraphs  selected  from  dis- 
course in  order  to  discover  the  presence  of  these  principles 
of  the  paragraph.  Moi^e  advanced  work  in  the  elaboration 
of  single  sentences  into  paragraphs  as  indicated  under  8, 
page  18i),  of  the  fourth  grade  work. 

4.  The  construction  into  a  brief,  organized  discourse  of 
one  or  more  of  the  series  of  separate  sentences,  indicated  in 
18  and  14,  under  the  work  of  the  fifth  grade.  Pupils  should 
in  this  work  be  led  to  consider  : 

a.  The  order  of  the  sentences  belonging  to  the 
series. 

b.  The  unity  of  the  sentences.  This  would  involve 
the  use  of  a/id,  for,  because,  etc. 

c.  Elaboration  of  the  different  thoughts. 

d.  Organization  into  paragraphs. 

f).  Advanced  work  in  harmony  with  the  suggestions  made 
under  5  in  the  work  of  the  fourth  grade. 

().  The  examination  of  a  description  of  a  high  grade 
somewhat  more  difficult  than  that  belonging  to  the  fourth 
grade  to  discover  in  its  structure  the  characteristics  men- 
tioned under  5  of  the  work  of  the  fourth  grade. 

7.  The  selection  of  a  particular  object  viewed  as  chang- 
ing, as  the  formation  of  the  Magna  Charta. 

a.  The  study  of  this  activity  as  to  its  purpose,  time, 
cause,  effects  and  parts. 


*  Study  in  connection  with  this  work  special  works  upon  the  paragiaph,  such 
for  example,  as  Paragraph  Writing,  by  Scott  and  Denney.  published  by  Allyn  & 
Bacon,  Boston,  Mass.,  and  Writing  in  English,  by  Maxwell  and  vSmith,  (especially 
Chapter  IX),  published  by  the  American  Book  Co. 


150  The  Problem  of  Method. 

b.  The  stud}'  of  one  of  the  parts  as  to  purpose,  time, 
cause  and  effect. 

c.  The  preparation  of  a  brief  narration  by  the  pupil 
setting  forth  the  formation  of  the  Magna  Charta. 

d.  An  examination  of  this  narration  in  order  to  test 
it  by  the  laws  of  discourse. 

8.  Advanced  work  in  harmony  with  the  suggestions 
made  under  11  in  the  work  of  the  foyrth  grade. 

9.  The  selection  and  examination  of  letters  written  by 
children  and  by  men  and  women  during  the  different  periods 
of  English  and  American  History.  These  letters,  as  those 
belonging  to  the  fourth  grade,  should  be  selected  in  so  far 
as  possible,  to  represent  different  classes  of  societ3^  The 
letters  in  these  grades,  however,  should  relate  largely  to  the 
more  complex  aspects  of  societ}^,  to  business,  to  the  state, 
and  to  the  church.  The  pupils  should  make  a  collection  of 
letters  relating  to  society,  business,  state  and  church,  from 
their  parents,  from  men  of  business,  from  government  offi- 
cials and  from  church  officials.  Selections  should  also  be 
made  from  magazines,  works  on  history  and  on  fiction,  and 
from  the  dail}^  press. 

a.  Examine  one  or  more  of  the  selected  letters, 
testing  them  by  the  thought  of  5  and  11  of  the  fourth 
grade. 

10.  Letter  Writing. 

The  letters  in  this  stage  should  relate  chiefly  to  the  more 
advanced  aspects  of  society  ;  to  business,  to  the  church  and 
to  the  state.  Among  them,  however,  should  be  letters  upon 
the  more  simple  aspects  of  society  for  children  ;  friendly 
letters  to  schoolmates  and  to  friends  in  general,  both  in  their 
own  neighborhood  and  in  distant  regions  ;  letters  to  parents, 
to  brothers  and  to  sisters.  More  careful  work  than  tliat  of 
the  fourth  grade  should  be  given  to  the  established  forms 
of  letters.     The  purpose  is  to  enable  the  pupil  to  write  a 


The  Problem  of  Method.  151 


brief  letter  that  is  legible,  correct  in  language,  in  punctua- 
tion, and  in  paragraphing,  on  an\'  of  the  topics  abov^e  given, 
and  in  any  of  the  relations. 

vSPECIAL  DEVICES  OR  MEANS. 

Many  special  devices  have  been  referrc^d  to  in  this  discus- 
sion. Several  important  ones  will  be  mentioned  here  The 
la.st  of  these — the  construction  of  a  series  of  sentences — will 
be  given  a  special  explanation,  which  will  bring  into  view 
nian}^  auxiliar}^  devices : 

J .     The  use  of  the  picture  for  the  purposes  of  description. 

2.  The  use  of  the  picture  to  illustrate  some  event  in  a 
story. 

8.  The  preparation  of  a  l)rief  outline  for  a  story  by  the 
pupils  with  the  aid  of  the  teacher  and  the  construction  of  a 
story  as  based  upon  this  outline  by  the  pupils. 

4.  The  preparation  of  an  outline  for  a  story  by  the  pupils 
and  the  construction  by  tliem  of  a  story  based  on  this  out- 
line. 

5.  The  construction  of  a  series  of  sentences  expressing 
the  different  events  in  an  activity  viewed  as  returning  to  its 
beginning. 

In  the  appendix  examples  of  the  different  series  of  sen- 
tences referred  to  under  the  fifth  kind  of  work  are  given. 
The  action  expressed  in  these  sentences  is  to  be  found  in  the 
work  of  nature  or  in  the  activities  of  man.  The  various 
series  representing  the  activities  of  man  are  to  reveal  his 
processes  in  the  institutions,  that  'i<,  in  the  family,  in  the 
church,  in  the  state,  etc.  Series  of  sentences  could  be  con- 
structed which  would  reveal  his  processes  in  the  arts,  as  in 
architecture,  painting,  etc. ,  and  in  the  modes  of  activity  by 
which  he  reveals  himself  in  games  and  pla3's. 

In  the  series  of  sentences  given  in  the  appendix,  none 
relate   to    the    field    of    art   or   to    games   or   plays.      The 


152  The  Problem  of  Method. 

pupils  under  the  guidance  of  the  teacher,  may  be  led  to 
grade  games  and  plays  according  to  their  adaptation  to  the 
age  and  development  of  the  pupils,  and  to  construct  series  of 
sentences  expressing  the  activity  in  typical  games  and  plays. 
The  various  series  presented  in  the  appendix  and  also  others 
to  be  constructed  should  be  graded  upon  certain  definite 
principles.  Among  these  principles  are  familiarity,  sim- 
plicity, and  the  rise  from  a  high  degree  of  passivity  through 
the  ditTerent  stages  of  advancement  to  a  high  degree  of  ac- 
tivity. The  different  series  given  as  examples  are  distrib- 
uted and  graded  mainly  according  to  the  third  principle. 
They  are  subject,  however,  to  a  new  distribution  and  grada- 
tion in  the  light  of  the  first  and  second  principles  sug- 
gested.--^ 


*  The  following  may  be  consulted  to  advantage  in  the  different  kinds  of  work 
itidicated  above  : 

1.  How  to  I^earn  a  lyanguage  in  Six  Months,  by  \V.  T.  Stead,  (Review  of  Re- 
views, Vol.  V,  July,  1892.) 

2.  The  Art  of  Teaching  and  Stud\-ing  I^anguages,  by  M.  Francois  Gouin. 

3.  How  to  I<earn  a  I^anguage,  by  J.  S.  Blackie.  (Review  of  Reviews,  Vol.  VI, 
August,  1892.) 

4.  The  Mother  Tongue,  Books  I,  II  and  III.     (Ginn  &  Co.) 

5.  How  to  lyearn  a  I^anguage  in  Six  Months.  A.  Report  of  Progress,  by  R.  W. 
"Waddy,  and  others.     (Review  of  Reviews,  Vol.  VI,  Nov.,  1892.) 

6.  A  Rojal  Road  to  I^earn  I^anguages.  The  Result  of  Six  Months'  Experiment 
— W.  T.  Stead's  Report  Upon  the  Kxperiment  in  His  Family.  (Review  of  Re- 
views, Vol.  VII,  March,  1S93.) 

7.  The  Acquisition  of  lyanguage  by  Children,  by  M.  Taine.  (Mind,  Vol.  II, 
April,  1S77.) 

8.  An  Infant's  Progress  in  I^anguage,  by  F.  Pollock.  (Mind,  Vol.  II,  July, 
1S78.) 

9.  Thought  and  language,  by  G.  F.  Stout.     (Mind,  Vol.  XVI,  Jan.,  1891.) 

10.  The  chapter  on — I^anguage,  Tone  and  Gesture,  Articulation,  Relation  of 
Tone  and  Gesture  to  words,  Speech— in  Mental  Evolution  in  Man,  by  George  J. 
Romanes. 

I!.     I^aiiguage  for  The  Grades,  by  J.  B.  Wisely. 

12.  The  Threefold  Purpo.se  of  Primary  r,anguage  Work,  bj' J.  B.  Wisely.  (A 
brief  article  in  the  Inland  Educator,  Vol.  Ill,  Nov.,  1896.) 

13.  Beginning  Steps  in  Compo.sition,  by  H.  C.  Peterson.  (A.  Flanagan,  Chi- 
cago. ) 

14.  The  Problem  of  Elementary  Compo.sition,  by  Elizabeth  Spalding.  (D.  C. 
Heath  &  Co.) 

15.  The  Teaching  of  English,  by  Percival  Chubb.     (The  IMacmillan  Co.) 


The  Problem  of  Method.  153 


CHAPTER  VIL 


METHOD  IN  A  LESSON. 

The  material  in  a  lesson  is  identical  in  nature  with  the 
material  of  an  entire  branch  of  study.  Method  in  a  lesson 
is,  therefore,  characterized  by  the  same  essential  elements 
as  method  in  a  brach  of  study.  Each  lesson  has  its  domi- 
nant idea.  This  is  the  organising  principle.  The  subject- 
matter  in  expressing  the  general  nature  of  the  material  and 
the  attrii)ute  to  be  emphasized,  indicates  the  scope.  The  as- 
signment sets  forth,  substantially,  the  divisions,  subdivisio7is 
and  their  relative  importance.  The  steps  reveal  the  psycho- 
logical process  of  the  learner,  and  the  devices  correspond  to 
the  same  element  in  the  method  in  the  branch  of  study.  In 
the  method  of  the  lesson,  however,  these  seven  aspects  of 
metliod  in  a  branch  of  study  are  treated  under  subjecr-mat- 
ter,  assignment,  steps,  purpose  and  devices.  The  psycho- 
logical aspect  is  somewhat  more  prominent  in  the  method  of 
the  lesson  than  in  the  method  of  a  brach  of  stud3\  There- 
fore, the  method  of  tlie  lesson  is  developed  from  the  princi- 
ple underlying  the  process  of  education. 

The  metliod  in  the  lesson  is,  indeed,  practically  the  activity 
which  is  characteristic  of  education.  Education  is  not 
merely  knowledge  ;  it  is  aspiration,  insight,  power.  That 
branch  of  study  which  arouses  most  fully  the  activity  of  the 
student,  is  the  one  that  is  the  most  educative  to  him.  This 
subject,  to  some  students,  is  history  ;  to  others,  it  is  mathe- 
matics ;  and  to  still  others,  physical  science.  Education  has 
K^  its  principle,  and  the  metliod  in  a  lesson  is  identical  with 
HKtliis  principle.     A  principle  is  the  e.ssential  mode  of  activ- 

I 


154  The  Problem  of  Method. 

ity  in  an  object  or  process.  The  principle  in  education  is 
that  psychological  activity  or  process  in  the  pupil  which  is 
manifested  in  every  stage  of  his  development. 

This  central,  comprehensive  principle  of  education  is  best 
denoted,  perhaps,  by  the  term  self-determijiation. 

The  word  determination  is  not  here  used  to  signify  a  fixed 
purpose,  although  its  meaning  includes  such  acts.  The  ex- 
pression '*  determination  "  means  limitation,  indicating  that 
when  the  self  is  existing  in  a  given  particular  act  a  termin- 
ation has  been  put  to  all  other  special  acts,  except  in  so  far 
as  they  are  involved  in  the  given  particular  act,  and  further- 
more, that  a  permanent  limit  has  been  given  to  the  self,  in 
that  a  tendency  to  react  the  particular  act  has  become  a  trait 
or  characteristic. 

Why,  however,  is  the  principle  or  mode  of  activity  referred 
to  as  .y<^^-determination  ? 

In  order  to  imply  that  the  object  in  the  physical  or  in  the 
spiritual  environment  which  seems  to  be  the  cause  of  the 
particular  mental  state  is  merely  a  stimulus,  an  excitant. 

The  self  having  been  stimulated  by  some  object  in  its  en- 
vironment, acts  upon  itself  and  thus  produces  a  particular 
act  or  state  of  itself.  The  self  as  a  distinctive  energy  or 
entity,  creates  out  of  its  potential  condition  the  special  state 
of  itself. 

It  is  to  be  noted  further  that  the  activity  or  principle  of 
self-determination  has  its  process  or  stages. 

1.  The  self  as  energy  exists  as  mere  capacity,  as  poten- 
tialit}^  This  is  a  condition  of  fused  unity.  In  a  sense,  the 
mind  is  "without  form  and  void." 

2.  The  self,  aroused  by  a  stimulating  object,  creates  in  it- 
self a  definite,  particular  activity.  The  result  is  separation. 
The  self  in  this  mental  state  is  different  from  itself  in  the 
potential  stage  and  also  from  itself  in  any  other  special  ac- 
tivity. 


The  Problem  of  Method.  155 

8.  The  self  then  becomes  negative  and  brings  to  an  end 
its  particular  activity.  The  energy  involved  in  the  given 
activit}'  returns,  as  it  were,  to  the  potential  condition,  with, 
however,  a  definite  tendency  to  react  the  special  activity 
which  has  just  been  brought  to  an  end,  apparently. 

The  foregoing  signifies  that  the  self,  in  the  process  of  edu- 
cation, gradually  gives  to  itself  its  own  definite  traits  or 
characteristics,  by  producing  them  out  of  its  native  but  un- 
developed capacity.  This  principle  of  education  is  an- 
nounced by  Rosenkranz  in  "Philosophy  of  Education," 
page  26. 

One  may  make  the  principle  more  real  to  himself,  and  un- 
derstand more  fully  its  universality,  by  considering  thought- 
fully "  The  Rhythm  of  Motion,"  in  First  Principles,  by  Her- 
bert Spencer,  pp.  250-271  ;  the  process  in  the  seed  ;  in  the 
amoeba  ;  in  the  object  expressed  by  the  sentence  ;  in  a  drama 
or  in  any  other  form  of  fiction. 

The  second  element  in  the  principle  of  self-determination, 
i.  e.,  the  special  activity,  differentiates  into  : 

The  process  of  objectifying  or  making  existent  in  the 
world  ideas  that  are  strictly  subjective. 

The  process  of  rendering  subjective  objective  existences 
whether  physical  or  spiritual. 

The  Objectifying  Process.  Tlie  idea  to  be  objectified  may 
be  that— 

Of  some  object  of  utility,  as  the  cotton  gin,  the  Brooklyn 
bridge,  the  constitution  of  the  United  States. 

Of  an  idealized  activit}^,  as  the  spiritual  condition  ex- 
pressed in  "  The  Chambered  Nautilus." 

Of  a  form  of  conduct  or  behavior. 

Of  these  three,  the  last  has  been  selected  for  a  brief  con- 
sideration because  of  its  explicit  manifestation  of  the  process 
in  education. 

Behavior  always  implies  a  criterion  to  which  one  is  to  con- 


156  The  Problem  of  Method. 

form.     This  is  the  reason  tliat  any  human  activity  may  be- 
come moral. 

The  first  stage  in  behavior  is  that  in  which  the  criterion 
seems  to  be  externall}^  imposed,  as  the  regulations  of  the 
home,  the  rules  of  school,  the  Ten  Commandments. 

The  second  stage  in  behavior  is  that  in  which  the  criterion 
is  subjective  only.  This  is  the  realm  of  conscience.  If  con- 
science is  irrational  obedience  to  it  can  not  be  justified.  If 
it  is  univ-ersal  it  will  ultimately  become  institutional  and 
thus  pass  over  into  the  third  class  of  criteria.  Paul  perse- 
cuted the  Christians  in  obedience  to  his  conscience.  But  his 
conscience  was  irrational,  because  if  made  universal  in  its 
application  it  would  have  meant  that  every  one  was  to  be 
persecuted  for  his  religious  belief  by  ever}'  one  who  did  not 
believe  in  the  same  way.  The  conscience  of  the  East  In- 
dian impelled  him  to  bur\^  the  living  wives  with  the  dead 
husband,  but  the  conscience  of  the  British  officer  commanded 
the  abolition  of  the  custom.  In  order  to  be  a  true  guide  the 
conscience  must  be  educated  and  thus  made  universid. 

The  third  stage  in  behavior  is  that  in  which  the  criterion 
is  subjective-objective,  thus  possessing  the  form  of  univer- 
sality. The  criterion  may  become  subjective-objective  in 
either  of  two  wa3^s — 

1 .  By  having  the  one  who  obeys  the  criterion  a  partici- 
pant in  the  creation  of  it. 

2.  By  having  the  one  who  obeys  it,  study  the  criterion 
until  he  sees  the  rational  ground  for  it.  In  this  way  he  takes 
it  up  into  his  consciousness  and  recreates  it,  as  it  were.  For 
example,  if  the  Jews  had  assembled  in  convention,  and  under 
free  discussion,  had  formulated  and  adopted  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments as  a  criterion  of  conduct,  the  Ten  Command- 
ments would  have  been  a  subjective-objective  criterion  pro- 
duced in  the  first  way.  After  the  Ten  Commandments  had 
been  promulgated  they  could  have  been  rendered  subjective- 


The  Problem  of  Method.  157 

objective  to  any  individual  Jew  by  having  him  study  the 
reason  underlying  them  until  he  justified  them  in  his  own 
reason.  He  would  thus  have  recreated  them,  and,  in  a 
sense,  would  have  become  the  producer  of  them.  In  these 
ways  the  regulations  of  the  home,  the  rules  of  school,  the 
rules  of  base  ball,  lawn  tennis,  the  by-laws  of  an  organiza- 
tion, a  party  platform,  the  'customs  of  society,  tlie  rules  of 
business,  the  creed  or  discipline  of  a  church,  and  the  laws 
of  the  state  become  subjective-objective  criteria. 

These  stages  of  activity  constitute  the  principle  of  discipline 
or  gover7ime7it. 

The  Subjectifying  Process.  This  is  the  process  of  knowledge 
or  of  scholarship.  It  implies  that  the  Infinite  consciousness 
and  the  finite  consciousness  have  each  passed  from  the  po- 
tential condition  into  the  stage  of  distinction,  or  the  sepa- 
rative stage.  To  exist  in  this  second  stage  is  to  objectify. 
The  Infinite  consciousness  has  objectified  itself  in  suns, 
stars,  clouds,  plants,  animals,  i.  e.,  in  the  universe  of 
nature.  The  finite  consciousness  has  objectified  itself  in  the 
arts,  in  machinery,  in  means  of  communication,  in  books, 
and  in  all  kinds  of  manufactured  objects.  Scholarship  con- 
sists in  rendering  subjective  these  two  great  realms — the 
world  of  nature  and  the  world  of  man.  Each  object  in 
either  of  these  realms  is  essentially  the  self.  It  is  the  self 
objectified.  Its  essence  is  the  process  of  the  self  involved 
in  the  objectification.  The  essence  of  the  cotton  gin  is  the 
process  of  Kli  Whitney's  mind  in  creating  it.  It  is  not 
alien  to  him,  and  hence  not  to  mankind.  The  self  of  the 
most  immature  mind  is  essentially  reflected  in  the  cotton  gin. 
It  is  the  acme  of  scholarship  to  possess  the  tendenc}-  to  ap- 
prehend intelligence,  purpose  or  the  process  of  the  self  as 
the  essence  of  the  object.  To  discover  the  self  in  an  ob- 
ject does  not  mean  that  a  subjective,  introspective  ego  is  ac- 
tively present  in  the  object  as  in  the  animated  bod\'.     The 


158  The  Problem  of  Method. 

meaning  is  that  the  rational  process  of  consciousness  is  re- 
flected in  the  object.  The  rational  process  involves  essen- 
tially a  consciousness  of  limit  or  defect,  idealization  of  a 
new  condition  lacking  the  limit,  desire  for  the  new  condi- 
tion, choice  of  the  reality  of  the  new  condition,  creation  of 
the  new  condition.  To  become  aware  of  the  reason  for  the 
web  feet  in  the  swan  is  to  discover  the  self  in  the  object.  It 
is  to  comprehend  the  process  of  intelligence  in  the  Infinite 
consciousness  which,  through  the  process  of  evolution,  gave 
rise  to  that  structure  in  the  swan. 

The  process  of  rendering  the  objective  subjective  exhib- 
its certain  stages.  The  first,  which  has  least  recognition  of 
the  self  in  the  object  is  Sense- Perception.  In  every  act  of 
sense-perception  there  is  involved  the  self  as  an  energy  ; 
the  process  in  the  particular  act  ;  and  the  object  perceived 
as  present.  The  sense-perceptiv^e  act  is  one  of  fusion  in  that 
the  object  perceived  is  regarded  as  entirely  different  from 
the  self,  there  being  no  recognition  that  the  object  is  an  ob- 
jectification  of  the  self  ;  in  that  neither  the  self  as  an  en- 
ergy nor  the  special  process  in  the  particular  act  is  in  con- 
sciousness. In  sense -perception  the  mind  is  engrossed  with 
the  object  as  something  quite  distinct  from  the  self.  This 
mode  of  activity  is  known  as  Prese7itatio7i. 

Its  first  stage  is  Sensation.  This  is  the  process  of  becom- 
ing aware  of  the  entire  environment  as  an  indistinct  whole. 
In  the  form  of  successive  and  simultaneous  sensations  the 
mind  responds  to  the  various  characteristics  of  the  present 
objects.  All  sensations  with  their  corresponding  attributes 
are  given  slight  attention,  but  there  is  no  special  emphasis 
or  selection. 

In  sensation  the  mind  is  rather  under  the  domination  of 
the  external  world,  although  each  sensation  is  a  manifesta- 
tion of  self-activity,  in  that  the  self  created  it  out  of  itself. 
It  is  not  received. 


Thp:  Problem  of  Method.  159 

The  second  stage  is  Perception.  In  perception  the  mind 
withdraws  its  slight  attention  from  all  attributes  or  objects 
being  sensed  except  one.  It  concentrates  its  energy  upon 
this  one  object,  dwelling  upon  it  until  it  has  created  a 
distinct  image  of  the  object.  The  self  projects  this  image. 
That  is,  it  interprets  the  image  to  signify  the  object  as 
present. 

The  third  stage  in  presentation  is  Apperception.  Percep- 
tion is  separative.  It  distinguishes  the  object  from  the 
fused  environment  and  the  special  act  of  perception  from 
the  condition  of  the  self  in  sensing. 

Apperception,  is  however,  a  unifying  procCvSs.  It  unifies 
the  present  image  of  the  present  object  with  kindred  ideas 
or  tendencies  which  are  already  elements  or  constituents  of 
the  organized  self.  The  present  image  may  be  that  signi- 
fying a  present  white  grape,  (the  first  one  known.)  In  ap- 
perception this  idea  is  identified  with  and  differentiated  from 
already  existing  ideas  of  grapes  and  of  other  fruits.  This 
process  gives  organization  to  newly  created  knowledge. 

Tlie  process  of  subjectifying  has  as  its  second  stage  Rep- 
resentation. This  is  more  nearly  a  recognition  of  the  self  in 
the  object  because,  the  object  being  absent,  the  mind  tends 
to  consider  itself  as  the  producer  of  the  image  of  the  object. 
The  object  is  still  regarded  as  distinct  from  the  self.  There 
is  no  consciousness  that  the  process  of  the  self  is  the  essence 
of  the  real  object.  There  is,  however,  a  knowledge  of  a 
certain  degree  of  identity.  The  image,  which  constitutes 
one  element  of  the  self,  is  known  to  be  a  psychical  recrea- 
tion of  the  object.  Thus  a  kind  of  superficial  identity  is 
felt. 

Tlie  mechanical  stage  of  Representation  is  Memory.  It  is 
spontaneous,  voluntar}-  or  S3'Steniatic. 

Spontaneous  memory  exhibits  the  potential  stage  of  con- 


160  The  Problem  of  Method. 

sciousness.     The  elements  in  the  process  are  fused  or  indis- 
tinct, and  there  is  no  contradiction  in  the  self. 

Voluntary  memory  manifests  the  second  or  separative 
stage  of  consciousness.  It  involves  a  contradiction  in  the 
self  in  that  there  is  an  effort  to  direct  and  stimulate  the  spon- 
taneous activities.  The  mind  discovers  that,  at  the  time,  it 
is  unable  to  act  in  the  direction  desired.  There  is  thus,  divi- 
sion in  the  self. 

Systematic  memory  is  a  remembering  which  involves  both 
the  voluntary  and  the  spontaneous  process.  This  form  of 
remembering  includes  all  that  is  signified  by  the  term  mne- 
monics from  its  superficial  to  its  rational  aspects.  The  self 
always  has  a  mnemonic  system  of  its  own  and  the  value  of 
this  system  depends  on  the  degree  of  culture.  Systematic 
memory  is  a  remembering  planned  before  hand  in  order  to 
enable  the  self  to  react  voluntarily  the  beginning  element  in 
the  process.    This  then  stimulates  the  spontaneous  process. 

A  higher  form  of  Representation  is  Imagmation .  The 
freedom  of  the  self  begins  to  appear  distincth'  in  imagina- 
tion. Not  only  does  the  mind  recognize  itself  as  the  pro- 
ducer of  the  image,  but  it  also  discovers  that  to  a  degree  it 
recreates  in  a  new  form  the  object  itself. 

The  imagination  is  mechanical  in  constructing  absent  ob- 
jects, events,  and  scenes,  under  the  stimulus  of  words,  draw- 
ings, pictures,  etc.  This  first  stage  of  imagination  is  some- 
what potential. 

A  second  stage  is  separative.  This  is  the  process  by  which 
the  mind,  during  the  contemplation  of  an  object,  imagines 
it  under  new  conditions  of  time  or  space. 

The  imagination  is  also  creative  or  poetic.  This  ma}^  be 
illustrated  by  reference  to  language. 

In  the  very  early  stages  the  child  uses  the  same  word  for 
two  different  objects,  not  knowing  that  the  objects  are  dif- 
ferent.     Since  the  impression  is  the  same  as  that  previously 


The  Problem  of  Method.  161 

experienced,  he  assumes  the  object  to  be  the  same.  Thus 
if  the  child  calls  the  moon  a  lamp,  his  language  is  not  fig- 
urative. He  assumes  it  to  be  a  lamp,  since  the  impression 
is  similar  to  that  experienced  when  looking  at  a  lamp.  In 
the  same  way  a  little  child  calls  any  man  father. 

A  second  stage  in  language  is  that  in  which  the  metaphor 
is  created.  There  is,  first,  the  existence  of  a  dim  concep- 
tion, as  of  something  that  is  protective.  This  is  then  dif- 
ferentiated into  two  clear  conceptions,  as  for  example,  into 
the  idea  of  the  advantage  and  protection  belonging  to  one  if 
the  spirit  is  characterized  by  a  godly  disposition,  and  on  the 
other  hand,  into  the  idea  of  a  shield  as  protecting  the  body. 
The  third  notion  is  that  of  the  identity  of  the  two  concep- 
tions. This  is  expressed  in  the  form  of  the  metaphor,  as 
"God  is  a  shield." 

The  next  stage  in  the  development  of  language  is  that 
which  gives  rise  to  the  simile.  Here  the  discrimination  is 
greater  than  in  the  metaphor.  The  two  objects  are  seen 
clearly  to  be  different  and  yet  an  identity  is  discovered.  The 
expression  is,  "  God  is  like  a  shield." 

The  fourth  stage  in  the  development  of  language  is  one 
that  gives  rise  to  prose.  In  this  case  there  is  no  considera- 
tion of  two  objects,  but  merely  of  an  object  and  its  attribute, 
as  ' '  God  protects. ' ' 

In  general  the  creative  imagination  is  that  form  of  men- 
tal activity  in  which  a  spiritual  condition  is  exhibited  in 
terms  of  the  physical. 

Under  Representation  there  is  a  third  stage  involving  both 
memory  and  imagination.  It  is  a  mode  of  consciousness  in 
which  the  transition  to  thought  is  made.  It  involves  the 
consideration  of  language  or  signs  in  general.  The  best 
term  for  this  mental  process  is  hiterpretatlon.  Interpreta- 
tion, however,  indicates  one-half  only  of  the  language 
process,  i.  e.,  that  process  in  which — 

Language  already  existing  is  observed, 


162  The  Problem  of  Method. 

The  content  or  meaning  is  remembered,  imagined  or 
conceived  and 

The  language  is  judged  to  signify  the  content. 
The  other  process  in  language  is  creative.     It  is  as  fol- 
lows : 

The  mind  constructs  an  idea. 

It  imagines  or  remembers  language  adapted  to  this  idea. 

It  judges  this  language  to  signify  the  idea. 
The  third  and  most  important  stage  in  the  process  of  sub- 
jectifying is  Thought.  Thought  is  that  mode  of  activity  in 
which  the  self  discovers  its  own  process  to  be  the  essence  of 
the  object.  In  the  process  of  thought  the  mind  becomes 
aware  of  its  essential  identity  with  the  object.  Although  it 
is  not  obvious,  nevertheless  any  process  of  answering  the 
question  * '  Why  ?  "  is  a  process  of  discerning  the  intelligence 
manifested  in  the  object.  If  one  by  study  answers  the  ques- 
tion— "Why  has  the  orange  a  rind?"  he  puts  forth  the 
process  of  finding  the  process  of  self  in  the  orange.  That 
is,  he  becomes  conscious  of  intelligence  in  the  structure  of 
the  orange.  In  thinking,  the  mind  has  its  own  process  as 
its  object,  although  its  object  seems  to  be  something  else. 

To  become  conscious  of  the  reason  for  the  stopper  in  an 
ink  bottle  is  to  comprehend  the  intelligence  in  the  stopper, 
the  significance  of  it.  The  stopper  is  an  object  of  meaning. 
This  is  to  say  that  it  is  the  objectification  of  a  volitional 
process.  Before  the  existence  of  the  stopper  a  conscious 
process  substantially  as  follows  occurred  : 

1.  A  person  became  aware  that  the  ink  in  the  receptacle 
with  no  covering  evaporated  too  rapidly,  received  too  much 
dust  and  was  liable  to  be  lost  through  the  overturning  of  the 
receptacle. 

2.  He  idealized  or  imagined  a  condition  in  which  these 
things  could  not  occur. 

3.  He  experienced  some  degree  of  mingled  pain  and 


The  Problem  of  Method.  163 

pleasure  on  account  of  the  consciousness  of  the  contrasted 
conditions. 

4.  He  desired  the  idealized  condition. 

5.  He  chose  to  produce  it. 

6.  He  thought  out  the  process  of  producing  it ;  that  is, 
he  constructed  the  notion  of  the  stopper  and  of  the  process 
of  creating  it. 

7.  His  purpose  and  intelligence  having  given  freedom  to 
the  appropriate  impulses  he  put  forth  the  series  of  actions 
necessary  to  produce  the  stopper. 

8.  He  judged  and  accepted  the  result. 

In  this  sense  the  stopper  is  an  objectification  of  the  process 
of  the  self.  When  the  stopper  is  sense-perceived,  remem- 
bered or  imagined,  this  process  is  not  known.  To  think  the 
stopper,  however,  is  to  obtain  a  notion  of  the  process  of 
mind  which  is  its  essence.  Thought  discovers  the  intelli- 
gence under  the  object.  In  the  process  of  thought  the  self 
faces  its  own  process  and  identifies  the  process  with  itself. 

There  are  degrees  in  the  clearness  with  which  this  is  done. 

The  first  and  lowest  stage  of  thought  is  called  Understand- 
hig.  This  is  the  dim  knowing  of  the  process  of  the  self  as 
the  essence  of  the  object.  It  is  an  indistinct  consciousness 
of  intelligence  or  meaning  as  the  reality  of  the  object.  The 
peculiarity  is  that  it  fails  to  realize  that  the  object  has  with- 
in it  a  process  or  energy  which  creates  and  organizes  it.  To 
the  understanding,  the  object  is  organized  from  without ; 
the  distinctions  of  the  object  are  externally  imposed.  They 
do  not,  to  the  understanding,  arise  from  a  generic  force 
within  the  object. 

Still  the  process  of  understanding  is  a  process  of  thinkings 
because  there  is  some  consciousness  of  the  ego  as  the  essence 
of  the  thing  understood. 

Understanding  is  marked  by  three  stages. 


164  The  PROBT.EM  OF  Method. 

The  first  stage  is  Appreheyision.  In  this  stage  the  mean- 
ing is  grasped  in  a  fused  or  indistinct  way. 

Apprehension  is  rather  a  feeling  of  meaning.  This  is  in- 
dicated by  the  popular  use  of  the  word. 

The  second  stage  is  that  of  Distinction.  This  stage  is 
separation.  In  it  the  mind  analyzes  or  isolates  in  order  to 
remove  the  indistinctness  of  apprehension.  The  procCvSses  in 
distinguishing  are  abstracting,  discrimiyiating  and  comparing. 
Comparing  is  a  separating  or  distinguishing  which  has  an 
element  of  unity  in  it.  It  is  therefore  the  basis  and  the 
transition  to  Classification. 

Classification  is  the  third  stage  of  the  process  of  under- 
standing.    It  also  has  subordinate  stages  within  it. 

The  first  is  identifying.  In  this  act  the  mind  unifies  the 
object  with  a  class  on  the  basis  of  some  external  attribute. 
This  act  is  sometimes  termed  generalizing  because  it  indicates 
a  somewhat  superficial  consideration.  The  word  generaliz- 
ing is,  however,  usually  restricted  to  the  act  of  discovering 
a  general  truth  in  the  inductive  process. 

The  second  is  separating  the  object  into  cause  and  effect. 
This  unifies  it  wnth  two  classes — causes  and  effects. 

The  third  is  unifying  the  object  with  its  own  inner  law  or 
organizing  energy.  This  process  is  the  discover}^  of  the 
structural  principle  of  the  object,  but  the  mind  as  under- 
standing becomes  aware  of  it  merely  as  a  passive  attribute, 
and  not  as  a  genetic,  inner  force  giving  rise  to  all  the  dis- 
tinctions in  the  object. 

The  second  stage  of  thought  is  sometimes  termed  Ratiocin- 
ation. It  is  the  distinguishing  process  of  the  mind  as  a  think- 
ing activity.  It  is  the  separative  stage  growing  out  of  the 
stage  of  fusion  or  potentiality  represented  by  Ujiderstand- 
ing.  This  stage  of  thought  differs  from  the  previous  stage 
in  that  the  energy  producing  the  object  and  its  details  is  re- 
garded as  within  the  object.     In  Ratiocination,  the  activity 


The  PROBI.EM  OF  Method.  165 

giving  rise  to  the  distinctions  in  the  object  is  regarded  as 
genetic. 

Its  first  stage  is  Coficeiving. 

In  its  beginning  in  any  given  case,  conceiving  is  a  contin- 
uation of  the  highest  stage  of  classifying.  The  organizing 
attribute  of  the  object,  which  in  classification  is  regarded 
as  merely  common  to  all  aspects  of  the  object,  is,  in  concep- 
tion, discovered  to  be  genetic. 

In  the  second  stage  of  conceiving  the  mind  attends  to  the 
particulars  or  distinctions  produced  by  the  creative  activity. 

The  third  stage  of  conceiving  is  one  in  which  the  self  be- 
comes aware  indistinctly  that  each  particular  is  genetic. 
The  energy  of  the  object  is  now  observed  to  be  creative  of 
all  the  distinctions  in  the  object.  The  universal  and  the 
particular  are,  in  this  stage  of  conception,  identified. 

The  second  stage  of  Ratiocination,  ndiUiQiy  Judgi7tg,  is  the 
mind's  process  of  apprehending  indistinctly  the  particular, 
i.  e. ,  the  object ;  of  isolating  and  knowing  clearly  the  univer- 
sal, i.  e.,  the  isolated  attribute ;  of  ceasing  to  regard  the  at- 
tribute as  isolated  and  noting  distinctly  its  tmity  with  the 
other  aspects  of  the  object.  In  judging,  although  the  ob- 
ject and  the  isolated  attribute  are  unified,  they  are  held  as 
distinct  also.  The  object,  in  the  judgment,  is  that  w^hich 
is  included  in  the  class  characterized  by  the  isolated  attribute. 
The  isolated  attribute  in  the  judgment  is  predicated  of  the  ob- 
ject. Each  is  thus  subordinated.  In  this  they  are  alike. 
Each  subsumes  the  other.  In  this  also  they  are  alike.  In 
the  judgment  this  identity  is  implicitly  known.  The  prom- 
inent thing  in  the  judgment  is  the  difference  of  the  object 
and  the  attribute.  The  identity  is  not  on  an  equality  with 
the  other  elements — object  and  attribute.  The  development 
of  the  judgment  is  toward  a  closer  identity  of  object  and  at- 
tribute. In  this  development  there  are  three  stages,  which 
reflect  the  process  of  consciousness. 


166  The  Problem  of  Method. 

In  the  first  stage  the  judgment  is  immediate.'  The  iden- 
tity is  fused,  indistinct.  The  object  and  the  attribute  are 
held  apart  as  distinct  entities.  Each  is  being  or  existence. 
The  copula  also  expresses  existence  only.  In  this  first  form 
of  judgment  the  immediately  existent  only  is  known,  as, 
This  triangle  is  right-angled. 

In  the  second  stage  the  judgment  is  conditio7ial.  The  im- 
mediately existent  is  now  seen  to  depend  on  another  exist- 
ence. That  is,  it  is  known  to  be  not  immediate.  This  is 
the  separative  stage  of  judgment.  It  expresses  doubt  or 
contingency.  An  example  is,  This  triangle  is  right-angled 
if  two  of  its  sides  are  perpendicular  to  each  other. 

In  the  third  stage  the  judgment  is  definitive.  The  defini- 
tive judgment  discovers  the  essence  of  the  object.  An  ex- 
ample is,  The  right-angled  triangle  is  a  space  enclosed  by  three 
lines,  two  of  which  are  sides  of  a  right  angle.  This  implies 
the  three-fold  process  of  consciousness.  Contingency  or 
negation  are  indicated  as  cancelled.  The  immediate  judg- 
ment hints  the  first  stage  of  consciousness  or  potentiality. 
The  conditional  judgment  hints  the  second  stage  of  con- 
sciousness or  separation.  The  definitive  judgment  hints  all 
three.  The  essential  identity  of  object  and  attribute  has 
now  been  discovered.  The  object,  the  isolated  attribute  and 
the  identity  reveal  the  total  process  of  the  self.  The  con- 
sciousness of  the  identity  is,  however,  somewhat  implicit. 

The  object  when  undifferentiated  as  expressed  by  the 
word  snozv  in  "  Snow  is  cold,"  is  representative  of  the  poten- 
tial condition  of  the  self.  The  isolated  attribute,  as  ex- 
pressed by  the  word  cold  is  a  manifestation  of  the  second  or 
separative  movement  of  consciousness.  The  relation  of 
identity  as  expressed  by  the  word  is  hints  the  third  stage  in 
the  mind' s  process — the  stage  of  its  return  into  itself  with 
an  acquired  tendency.  It  indicates  the  mind's  return  to 
unity  after  separation,  or  its  tendency  to  discover  identity 


The  Problem  of  Method.  167 

in  elements  it  has  regarded  as  distinct  in  its  second  stage. 
The  sentence,  as  the  expression  of  the  judgment,  is  quite  a 
distinct  objectification  of  the  three  stRges  in  the  process  of 
the  mind. 

In  the  sentence  "The  glistening  snow  is  cold,"  the  ob- 
ject expressed  by  the  subject  of  the  sentence  indicates  the 
potential  or  indistinct  aspect  of  the  self  in  so  far  as  the  word 
snozv  is  the  expression,  but  the  use  of  the  words  the  and 
glistening  signify  that  the  process  of  isolating  an  attribute 
and  of  unifying  has  occurred  at  least  twice  with  the  object 
snow.  The  whole  sentence  shows  that  this  process  is  also 
occurring  at  the  time  indicated  by  the  sentence.  The  object 
being  thought  of  is  differentiated  in  a  double  sense  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  two  former  cases  of  identifying.  In  the  sentence, 
"  The  snow,  which  is  glistening,  is  cold,"  the  process  of  the 
mind  is  exhibited  in  the  idea  of  the  object  expressed  by 
"  The  snow  which  is  glistening  ;  "  in  the  idea  of  the  attri- 
bute expressed  by  the  word  ''cold,"  and  in  the  idea  of 
identity  expressed  by  the  word  "  is." 

The  use  of  the  word  ' '  The  ' '  and  of  the  clause  '  *  which  is 
glistening  "  as  the  expression  of  a  modifying  attribute  indi- 
cates two  former  acts  of  mind  manifesting  in  each  case  an 
act  of  judgment.  The  clause,  expressing  the  unity  of  the 
object  denoted  by  "which"  and  the  attribute  signified  by 
the  word  "  glistening  "  reveals  a  present  case  of  separating 
and  unifying.  The  compound  sentence  is  a  form  of  language 
which  exhibits  at  least  two  such  acts  of  identification  based 
upon  discrimination. 

In  a  sense  much  more  complete  than  here  indicated,  the 
essential  process  of  the  mind  objectifies  itself  in  the  forms 
and  elements  of  the  sentence. 

The  identity  expressed  by  the  copula  is,  however,  not  fully 
enough  diiferentiated  in  the  judgment. 

Reasoning,  the  third  stage  of  Ratiocination,  renders  ex- 


168  The.Problem  of  Method. 

plicit  the  development  of  the  identity  expressed  by  the 
copula 

One  reason  that  students  have  difficulty  in  comprehend- 
ing the  process  of  judging  and  of  reasoning  is  that  their  first 
approach  to  each  of  these  processes  is  usually  logical  rather 
than  psychological.  In  regard  to  the  judgment  it  is  often 
said  that  consciousness  being  possessed  of  two  ideas,  one 
universal  and  the  other  particular,  identifies  them  or  dis- 
criminates them,  thus  producing  the  judgment  or  proposi- 
tion. This  is  a  mechanical  explanation  and  removes  judg- 
ment from  the  realm  of  actual  psychological  processes  of  dis- 
covering truth  in  actual  objects.  Judging  begins  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  idea  of  a  single  object  whether  general  or 
particular.  In  the  examination  of  this  object  the  self  abstracts 
or  isolates  an  attribute  (or  the  absence  of  the  attribute) 
and  then  identifies  it  with  the  object.  In  the  first  case  the 
sentence  would  express  identity.  In  the  second  the  direct 
expression  is  that  of  non-identitj%  although  in  reality  the 
judgment  is  always  the  divScovery  of  identity.  The  judg- 
ment thus  expressed  is  called  a  proposition. 

Reasoning  has  often  received  the  same  mechanical  ex- 
planation as  that  referred  to  concerning  the  judgment.  Rea- 
soning is  said  to  be  a  connection  of  propositions.  One  who 
reasons  is  supposed  to  have  in  consciousness  two  propo- 
sitions, and  to  deduce  from  these  a  third  proposition.  This 
explanation  is  based  upon  the  notions  of  formal  logic  and 
not  upon  the  nature  of  the  psychological  process  of  reason- 
ing. The  logical  process  is  a  generalization  based  upon  the 
psychological  process.  In  the  psychological  process  of  rea- 
soning the  mind  is  concerned  with  a  single  object  and  is 
making  a  real  examination  of  it  in  order  to  discover  some 
fact  concerning  it — a  fact  not  immediately  accessible.  The 
first  process  is  that  of  judging.  That  is,  the  mind  constructs 
the  idea  of  the  object  as  a  whole  ;  then,  as  a  result  of  con- 


The  PROBI.EM  OF  Method.  169 

tinned  contemplation  of  the  object,  it  abstracts  or  isolates  an 
attribute,  and  then  identifies  this  attribute  with  the  object 
and  its  class,  or  with  the  object  through  its  class.  The  self 
does  not,  however,  have  in  consciousness  a  judgment  con- 
cerning the  object  and  a  judgment  relating  to  the  class  and 
then  deduce  a  third  judgment  termed  the  conclusion.  The 
truth  it  discovers  as  to  the  class  belongs  to  the  process  of 
reacting  similar  past  experience  common  to  all  processes  of 
knowing.  There  is  no  attention  to  a  class  until  the  neces- 
sity for  its  consideration  arises  in  the  direct  examination  of 
the  object.  It  is  a  great  aid  in  obtaining  a  knowledge  of  rea- 
soning to  note  that  the  mind  al\va3'S  spontaneously  regards 
each  object  old  or  new  as  one  of  a  class.  The  reason  for 
this  is  that  each  object  of  its  entire  past  experience  has  been 
found  to  belong  to  a  class.  In  reasoning  there  occurs  a 
judgment,  and  then  the  process  of  discovering  the  ground 
for  the  identity.     There  are  three  stages  in  this  process. 

The  first  is  termed  Identification.  In  identification  the 
mind  apprehends  indistinctly  the  relation  to  the  class  which 
is  the  ground  for  asserting  identity.  This  indistinctness  is 
the  basis  of  the  inaccurac}^  so  frequent  in  this  stage.  Rea- 
soning always  involves  the  particular,  the  general  or  class 
and  the  universal.  The  mind  in  identifying  unifies  the  par- 
ticular with  the  class  because  it  has  discovered  in  the  par- 
ticular an  attribute  (the  universal)  which  it  is  aware  belongs 
to  the  class.  This  attribute  may,  however,  belong  to  an- 
other class,  and  may  thus  give  rise  to  an  incorrect  conclu- 
sion, somewhat  as  follows:  In  examining  a  word,  as  red, 
the  characteristic  expressi7ig  an  attribute  may  be  isolated  and 
then  identified  with  the  word.  This  completes  the  judg- 
ment. Based  upon  past  experience,  the  characteristic — ex- 
pressing an  attribtite — may  be  identified  with  the  class,  attrib- 
utive verbs.  The  word  red  may  then  be  identified  with  the 
class  attributive  verbs.     The  defect  in  the  process  is  lack 


170  The  Problem  of  Method. 

of  distinction  or  differentiation  in  knowing  fully  the  isolated 
attribute.  The  characteristic  which  has  been  abstracted  has 
three  elements,  but  one  only  is  noticed  in  the  given  case. 
The  elements  are  (1)  expressing  an  attribute,  (2)  of  an  ob- 
ject, (3)  without  asserting  it. 
The  psychological  process  is — 

1.  Becoming  conscious  of  the  word  red  as  a  whole. 

2.  Isolating  the  characteristic  expressiiig  an  attribute  of 
an  object  without  asserting  it;  but  observing  only  the  ele- 
ment, expressing  a7i  attribute. 

3.  Unifying  the  isolated  attribute  with  the  object  (the 
word  red). 

4.  Identifying  the  isolated  attribute  with  the  class,  at- 
tributive verbs. 

5.  Identifying  the  word  7'ed  and  the  class  attributive 
verbs  on  the  ground  of  their  unity  in  expressing  an  attribute. 

The  syllogism  in  the  logical  process  is — 

1.  The  word  red  expresses  an  attribute. 

2.  Attributive  verbs  express  attributes. 
8.     The  word  red  is  an  attributive  verb. 

It  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  middle  term  is  the  universal, 
and  that  it  is  expressed  in  the  predicate  of  the  major  and  of 
the  minor  premise. 

This  stage  of  reasoning  is  that  of  fused  unity.  It  resem- 
bles the  potential  stage  in  the  mind's  activity. 

The  second  stage  in  reasoning  is  known  as  Induction.  It 
is  the  separative  aspect  of  reasoning.  It  is  the  stage  of  dis- 
tinction, although  the  final  result  is  synthesis.  The  char- 
acteristic element  in  induction  is  the  isolating  or  discover- 
ing of  the  distinguishing  attribute  of  the  class.  Therefore, 
the  result  is  both  synthetic  and  analytic.  The  objects  of 
the  class  are  unified  on  the  basis  of  the  central  attribute  and 
the  class  is  separated  from  the  other  classes  on  the  same 
basis. 


The  Problem  of  Method.  171 

In  induction  there  is  always  a  particular  object  to  be  in- 
vestigated. I^et  it  be  assumed  that  the  object  is  the  word 
red  as  found  in  the  sentence  "  This  leaf  is  red,"  and  that  it 
is  the  first  lesson  in  thinking  the  nature  of  the  adjective. 

It  is  also  to  be  assumed  that  the  pupil  does  not  know  the 
name  of  the  class  or  that  there  is  a  class.  While  it  is  not  a 
new  word,  it  is  practically  new  so  far  as  its  definite  meaning 
is  concerned.  Many  objects  exist  thus  to  the  pupil,  and 
even  to  the  mature  scholar. 

The  psychological  process  in  induction  with  the  word  redQ.s 
its  object  is  :  The  pupil's  mind  (1)  attends  to  the  word  as  a 
whole,  (2)  abstracts  the  characteristic  expressing  an  attri- 
bute of  an  object  without  asserting  it,  (3)  judges  or  rather  as- 
sumes the  object  to  belong  to  a  class,  (4)  gives  considera- 
tion to  (abstracts)  the  creative  activity  which  produced  the 
words  of  the  class,  (5)  judges  it  to  be  uniform  in  its  process, 
(6)  infers  that  all  the  words  of  the  class  possess  this  character- 
istic— expressing  an  attribute  of  an  object  ivithout  asserting  it. 
This  is  essentiall}^  the  mind's  process  in  inductive  reason- 
ing, and  as  a  mere  process  is  as  clearly  revealed  with  one  ob- 
ject as  it  would  be  with  many.  In  order,  however,  to  insure 
validity  to  the  result,  there  must  be  an  investigation  of 
many  objects. 

The  syllogism  of  the  logical  process  is — 

1.  The  creative  activity  of  a  class  is  uniform  in  its  process. 

2.  The  creative  activity  produced  this  object  (the  word 
red^  with  the  characteristic; — expressi^ig  an  attribute  of  an 
object  without  asserting  it. 

3.  All  objects  of  the  class  possess  that  characteristic. 
This  equips  the  mind  of  the  pupil  with  a  general  principle, 

called  in  logic  the  major  premise. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  attribute  abstracted  in  (2)  above 
is  actually  found  to  be  present.  It  is  also  to  be  observed  that 
the  subjects  in  the  first  and  second  propositions  are  the  same, 


172  Thk  Problem  of  Method. 

while  in  the  identification  the  predicates  were  the  same.  In- 
duction begins  b}^  discovering  an  attribute  in  a  single  object 
and  ends  by  asserting  that  attribute  of  the  whole  class. 

The  third  stage  in  reasoning  is  Deduction.  It  resembles 
the  third  stage  in  the  process  of  consciousness.  It  is  syn- 
thetic in  that  it  unifies  an  attribute  with  a  single  object, 
but  the  result  is  to  distinguish  the  object.  That  is,  it  ter- 
minates in  analysis  or  separation. 

The  psychological  process  in  deduction  is  as  follows: 

1.  The  learner  attends  to  some  object  as  a  whole,  as, 
to  the  word  red  in  the  sentence — '*  The  red  sandstone  is  ex- 
pensive. ' ' 

2.  He  inquires  whether  the  word  red  limits  the  appli- 
cation of  the  word  saiidstojie  or  whether  it  merely  empha- 
sizes an  attribute  belonging  to  the  object  named  by  that 
word.  This  is  the  act  of  abstracting  the  attribute  limiting 
and  inquiring  whether  the  word  red  possesses  it  in  this 
special  case.  The  second  step  in  deduction  is  always,  sub- 
stantially, of  this  form. 

3.  He  then  classes  the  word  red  on  the  basis  of  an  at- 
tribute which  is  different  from  the  one  inquired  for.  This 
second  attribute  is  one  that  is  observed  to  be  present.  In 
this  case  the  characteristic  on  the  basis  of  which  the  word  is 
classed  is  expressing  a  quality  (color)  which  is  variously  maii- 
ifested  by  the  object  denoted  by  the  substantive. 

4.  He  then  analyzes  the  class.  In  this  analysis  the  class 
is  found  to  consist  of  words  which  express  an  attribute  of  an 
object  ;  the  attribute  is  found  to  be  one  which  appears  in 
various  forms  in  the  object ;  the  word  is  seen  to  express  one 
form  of  the  attribute  only  and  therefore  to  limit. 

5.  He  knows  that  the  words  of  the  class  limit,  because 
his  analysis  has  shown  limiting  to  be  one  of  the  characteris- 
tics of  the  class. 

6.  He  infers  that  the  word  red  limits  the  application  of 


The  Problem  of  Method.  178 

the  word  sa7idsto7ie,  because  it  was  found  to  belong  to  the 
class,  as  indicated  in  3,  page  172. 

The  syllogism  of  the  logical  process  is — 

1.  All  adjectives  expressing  attributes  belonging  to  only 
a  part  of  a  class  are  limiting. 

2.  The  word  red  is  an  adjective,  expressing  an  attribute 
belonging  to  only  a  part  of  the  objects  expressed  by  the  word 
sajidstone^ 

3.  The  word  red  possesses  the  attribute  of  limiting  the 
application  of  the  word  sandstoiie  in  the  sentence — "  The  red 
sandstone  is  expensive." 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  attribute  isolated  in  2  is  not 
directly  known  to  be  present  as  is  always  the  case  in  induc- 
tion. In  deduction  the  attribute  isolated,  i.  e.  thought  of,  is 
not  directly  accessible.  The  mind  gives  attention  to  the  at- 
tribute and  inquires  whether  it  is  possessed  by  the  object. 
Sometimes  the  person  in  the  process  of  deduction  centers  at- 
tention upon  the  fact  that  the  object  has  a  cause,  a  use,  an 
effect,  a  relation  of  likeness  or  difference,  and  inquires,  not 
whether  it  has  the  function,  etc.,  but  ivhat  the  function  or 
relation  is. 

It  is  to  be  further  noticed  that  the  subject  of  the  major 
premise  is  the  predicate  of  the  minor  premise.  While  the 
truth  discovered  in  induction  is  based  on  uniformity  in  the 
creative  process  and  is  given  a  general  application,  the  truth 
discovered  in  deduction  is  based  on  the  uniformity  of  the 
essential  class  attributes  produced  by  the  creative  activitj^ 
and  is  given  a  particular  application.  This  indicates  that 
there  is  no  ''inductive  method."  Induction  is  only  one 
stage  of  a  process.  Deduction  is  the  other.  Induction,  be- 
ginning with  a  single  object,  discovers  a  general  truth.  De- 
duction, beginning  with  the  general  truth,  discovers  that  the 
general  truth  belongs  to  a  certain  particular  object.  The 
growth  of  knowledge  is  not  * '  from  the  particular  to  the  gen- 


174  The  Problem  of  Method. 

eral  "  but  from  the  particular,  through  the  general  to  a  par- 
ticular, which  is  enriched  to  the  mind  by  the  discovery  that 
it  (the  particular)  possesses  the  general. 

The  special  stages  in  the  process  of  subjectifying  or  know- 
ing are  : 

I.  Presentation. 

1.  Sense- perception. 

a.  Sensing. 

b.  Perceiving. 

c.  Apperceiving. 

II.  Rep7esentation. 

1.  Memory. 

a.  Recreating  the  image  of  the  absent  object. 

b.  Reacting  similar  past  experience. 

c.  Comparing    and  contrasting   the  reacted  image 
with  the  similar  past  experience. 

d.  Inferring  that  the  reacted  image  means  a  partic- 
ular once  present  but  now  absent. 

2.  Imagination. 

a.  Constructive. 

(1).  Creating  the  image  of  an  object  never  ob- 
served.    (Described  or  pictured.) 

(2).   Reacting  similar  past  experience. 

(3).  Comparing  and  contrasting  the  created  im- 
age with  the  past  experience. 

(4).  Inferring  that  the  created  image  signifies 
an  object  not  now  being  experienced  and  not  at  any  time 
experienced. 

b.  Differentiating. 

(1).   Imaging  an  object  as  it  exists. 

(2).  Reconstructing  this  image  so  as  to  adjust  it 
to  the  same  object  under  different  conditions  ;  that  is,  the 
object  may  be  thought  of  as  larger,  as  having  a  different 
color,  as  possessing  a  different  arrangement  of  parts,  etc. 


The  Problem  of  Method.  175 

(3).  Relating  this  reconstructed  image  to  past 
experience. 

(4).   Inferring  that  the  image  signifies  an  object 
not  being  experienced  and  not  having  been  experienced, 
c.   Creative. 

(1).  Imaging  an  object  or  process,  as  the  physi- 
cal echo  mentioned  in  Tennyson's  Bugle  Song. 

(2).  Idealizing  a  spiritual  object,  as,  a  human 
deed. 

(3) .  Conceiving  the  two  as  symbol  and  thing  sig- 
nified. 

3.  The  Language  Activity. 
This  is  a  mode  of  mental  activity  concerned  with  sym- 
bols, i.  e.,  letters,  words,  sentences,  etc.  In  one  aspect  it 
is  partially  an  objectifying  activity.  It  is  a  complex  activ- 
ity involving  sometimes  sense-perceiving,  remembering, 
judging,  imagining.  Sometimes  it  contains  conceiving  and 
reasoning.  Its  content  or  object  of  consideration  is  lan- 
guage. The  act  has  been  termed  Memorization.  This 
term  is  somevvliat  objectionable,  however,  because  it  sug- 
gests the  activity  of  memorizing  which  is  quite  a  different 
activity  from  that  referred  to  as  memorization  or  the  lan- 
guage activity.  The  general  nature  of  the  language  activ- 
ity is  explained  in  Psychology ,  by  Dewey,  pp.  211-212.  The 
language  activity  exhibits  two  main  forms  : 

a.  The  creation  or  learning  of  new  terms. 

(1).  Conceiving.  This  involves  sense-perceiv- 
ing, remembering  or  imagining  a  particular  object,  and 
the  analysis  of  it  ;  the  same  activities  upon  other  objects  ; 
comparison,  generalization,  i.  e.,  the  discovery  of  the  com- 
mon element. 

(2).  Sense-perceiving,  i.  e.,  the  imaging  of  the 
term. 


176  The  Problem  of  Method. 

(3).  Judging  that  the  term  is  a  symbol  for  the 
meaning. 

b.  The  interpreting  of  language. 

(1).  Sense-perceiving  the  term. 

(2).  Remembering  the  meaning  in  such  expres- 
sions as,  ''He  opened  the  door,"  or  idealizing  it,  in  such 
expressions  as  "  I  am  the  door. ' ' 

(3).  Judging  that  the  term  is  a  symbol  of  the 
meaning. 

III.     Thought. 

1.     Understanding. 

a.  Apprehending. 

b.  Distinguishing. 
(1).  Abstracting. 
(2).   Discriminating. 
(3).  Comparing. 

c.  Classifying. 

(1).  Identifying,  i.  e.,  classifying  the  object  on 
an  external  or  non-essential  attribute. 

(2).  Analyzing  the  single  object  into  cause  and 
effect,  i.  e.,  distinguishing  it  into  an  object  which  has  been 
caused  and  into  an  object  which  is  capable  of  producing  an 
effect. 

(3).  Organizing  the  object  by  thinking  of  all  its 
attributes'^^ jparts  as  manifesting  the  central  or  structural 
idea.  Since,  however,  this  is  the  stage  of  the  understand- 
ing, the  energy  signified  by  this  idea  exists  to  the  mind  as 
passive.  It  is  not  yet  comprehended  as  generic,  i.  e.,  as 
giving  rise  to  the  object  and  all  of  its  phenomena. 

2.     Ratiocination, 
a.  Conceiving. 

(1).  Apprehending  the  central  characteristic  or 
energy. 


The  ProbIvEm  of  Method.  177 

(2).  Analyzing  the  object  into  its  particulars. 

(3).  Judging  each  particular  to  be  a  manifesta- 
tion of  the  central  attribute  or  energy,  discovering  thus  the 
structural  nature  of  the  object. 

b.  Judging — Constructing, 

(1).  An  immediate  judgment,  a  judgment  of  mere 
being  or  existence,  seeming  to  involve  no  condition. 
(2).  A  conditional  judgment. 
(3).  A  definitive  judgment. 

c.  Reasoning. 

(1).   Identifying. 

(a).  Attending  to  the  object  as  a  whole.  (Sense- 
perceiving,  remembering,  imagining.) 

(b).  Abstracting  an  attribute. 

(c).  Identifying  the  attribute  with  a  certain 
class. 

(d).   Identifying  the  object  with  that  class. 
(2).  Inductive  reasoning. 

(a).  Attending  to  the  object  as  a  whole.  (Sense- 
perceiving,  remembering  or  imagining. ) 

(b).   Abstracting  an  attribute  which  is  present. 

(c).  Judging  the  object  to  be  one  of  a  class. 

(d).  Remembering  that  the  creative  activity 
which  produces  a  class  is,  in  general,  uniform  in  its  process. 

(e).  Inferring  that  the  abstracted  attribute  be- 
longs to  all  objects  of  a  class. 

(3).   Deductive  reasoning. 

(a).  Attending  to  the  object  as  a  whole.  (Sense- 
perceiving,  remembering  or  imagining. ) 

(b).  Abstracting  an  attribute  not  known  to  be 
present  and  not  accessible  and  inquiring  what  it  is  or  whether 
it  is  present. 

(c).  Classing  the  object  on  another  attribute, 
observed  to  be  present. 


178  The  Probi^em  of  Method. 

(d).  Analyzing  the  class  including  the  distin- 
guishing of  the  essential  attributes. 

(e).  Judging  the  inquired-for  attribute  to  be 
one  of  the  essential  attributes.  (The  judgment  may  be  neg- 
ative. ) 

(f).  Inferring  that  the  particular  object  pos- 
sesses the  inquired-for  attribute.  (The  inference  ma}^  be 
negative.) 

These  activities  as  here  expressed  are  the  mental  activity 
2iS  process  or  form  merely.  They  do  not  indicate  the  content 
or  meanijig.  That  is,  there  is  no  reference  to  the  object 
known,  which  is  always  a  limitation  of  the  general  process 
or  form,  rendering  it  definite.  When  expressed  as  steps  in 
an  organized  lesson  these  mental  activities  are  given  so  as 
to  indicate  their  true  nature  as  both  general  and  specific. 

In  the  first  paragraph  of  his  treatment  of  Conception, 
Psychology,  page  204,  Dr.  Dewey  distinguishes  between  the 
image  or  particular  mental  act  and  its  function.  He  indi- 
cates that  perception  does  not  differ  from  conception  on  ac- 
count of  the  difference  in  the  particular  image,  but  rather 
on  account  of  a  difference  in  the  fiuiction  or  meanhig  which 
the  image  has.  It  may  be  of  advantage  to  show  this  dis- 
tinction through  the  series  of  intellectual  activities. 

Presentation. 

Sense-perception — An  act  in  which  the  mind  constructs  a 
particular  image  or  state,  and  then  interprets  it  to  mean  a 
present  particular  object. 

Represen  ta  tio?i . 

Memory — An  act  in  which  the  mind  re-creates  a  particu- 
lar mental  state  or  image,  and  then  interprets  it  to  mean  a 
particular  object  once  present  but  not  present  now. 

Imagination-yAn  act  in  which  the  mind  creates  a  partic- 


The  PROBI.EM  OF  Method.  179 

ular  image,  and  then  interprets  it  to  mean  a  particular  ob- 
ject not  present  now  and  at  no  time  present. 

Thought. 
Understanding. 

Apprehending — The  mind's  act  of  creating  a  particular 
image  and  then  intepreting  it,  indistinctly,  to  signify  the 
meaning  of  the  object. 
Distinguishing. 

Abstracting — The  mind's  act  of  creating  a  particular 
mental  stage  or  image,  and  then  interpreting  it  to  mean  an 
isolated  element  in  the  meaning  of  the  object. 

Discriminating — The  mind's  act  of  creating  a  particu- 
lar mental  state  or  image,  and  then  interpreting  the  image 
to  mean  the  difference  of  the  two  or  more  objects  being 
contemplated,  notwithstanding  their  unity  in  a  single  men- 
tal activity. 

Comparing — The  mind's  act  of  constructing  a  par- 
ticular mental   state  or  image,   and  then  interpreting  the 
image  to  mean  the  unit}'  of  the  two  or  more  objects  discrim- 
inated in  regard  to  some  selected  common  attribute. 
Classifying. 

Generalizing — The  mind's  act  of  creating  a  particular 
image,  and  then  interpreting  it  to  mean  the  unity  of  the  object 
with  the  class. 

Analyzing  the  object  into  cause  and  effect — The 
mind's  act  of  creating  a  particular  state  or  image,  and  then 
interpreting  it  to  mean  the  object  as  distinguished  into  cause 
and  effect. 

Discovering  the  structural  idea  of  an  object — The 
mind's  act  of  creating  a  particular  mental  state  or  image, 
and  then  interpreting  this  image  to  mean  the  activity  or 
idea  revealed  in  each  aspect  of  the  object. 


180  The  Probi^em  of  Method. 

Ratiocination. 

Conceiving — The  mind's  act  of  creating  a  particular 
mental  state  or  image,  and  then  interpreting  this  image  to 
signify  the  universal  creative  activity  underlying  the  given 
object  and  all  others  of  its  class,  and  also  the  essential  dif- 
ferentiations manifested  by  the  creative  activity. 

Judging — The  mind's  act  of  creating  a  particular  state 
or  image,  and  then  interpreting  the  image  to  signify  the  re- 
lation existing  between  an  isolated  attribute  and  the  re-, 
mainder  of  the  object  from  which  the  attribute  has  been 
isolated. 

Reasoning. 

Identifying — The  mind's  act  of  creating  a  particu- 
lar mental  state  or  image,  and  then  interpreting  the  image  to 
mean  that  the  object  being  known  belongs  to  a  class  on 
the  basis  of  an  attribute  pertaining  not  only  to  that  class, 
but  to  other  classes. 

Inductive  reasoning — The  mind's  act  of  creating  a 
particular  image,  and  then  interpreting  the  image  to  signify 
that  the  attribute  isolated  from  an  object,  or  a  number  of 
objects,  belongs  to  all  the  objects  of  the  class. 

Deductive  reasoning — The  mind' s  act  of  creating  a 
particular  image,  and  then  interpreting  the  image  to  signify 
that  a  certain  general  characteristic  known  to  belong  to  the 
class  in  which  this  object  is  found  is  in  identity  with  the  ob- 
ject.* 

THE   LESSON. 

A  true  lesson  is  an  art  product,  because  is  has  a  predom- 
inant activity  (the  Universal)  and  objective  elements  which 
adequately  exhibit,  or  stimulate  and  guide  that  activity  (the 
Particular). 


*The  outline  of  psychological  activities  on  pp.  174-178  has  been  directly  sug- 
gested by  the  treatment  of  the  intellectual  processes  in  Psychology  and  the  Psycho 
sis,  by  Denton  J.  Snider,  Sigma  Publishing  Co,,  210  Pine  St.,  St.  L,ouis. 


The  ProbIvKm  of  Method.  181 

The  Lniversal.  The  predominant  activity  or  universal  is 
in  the  pupil's  mind.  It  is  the  essential  process  of  his  mind 
in  learning,  that  is,  in  rendering  an  object  subjective  or 
known.  Let  it  be  assumed  that  the  object  to  be  learned  is 
the  UvSe  of  the  word  i7i  when  the  environment  is  physical. 
The  mental  process  in  the  child  is  as  follows : 

1.  He  experiences  a  feeling  of  limit. 

2.  He  then  apprehends  indistinctly  the  object  as  a  whole. 
8.     As  he  does  this  he  imagijies  himself  as  understand- 
ing the  use  of  the  word  in. 

4.  On  account  of  the  cohciousness  of  the  two  diverse 
selves  (the  real  and  the  potential)  he  experiences  feelings 
of  dissatisfaction  aiid  satisfactioji. 

5.  He  desires  the  potential  or  ideal  self. 

6.  He  gradually  changes  this  desire  into  purpose. 

7.  In  order  to  accomplish  this  purpose,  he  analyzes  the 
object  which  was  indistinctly  apprehended  in  the  second 
stage  into  its  elements  or  distinctions.  In  this  process  of 
discovering  the  distiyictions  there  is  a  knowledge  of  an  ob- 
ject, an  environment  and  the  relation  expressed  by  the 
word  i7i ;  of  the  object  as  differentiating  into  (1)  the  object 
itself,  as  "  Sand  in  a  boat,"  (2)  the  object  possessing  unity 
with  an  attribute  of  place,  as  "  Sand  is  in  the  boat,"  (3)  the 
object  possessing  an  attribute  of  action,  as  "  Sand  is  settling 
in  the  boat ; ' '  there  is  also  a  knowledge  of  the  environment 
as  not  being  produced  by  the  object,  by  the  attribute  of 
being,  or  by  the  action. 

8.  He  then  reconsiders  the  various  distinctions  in  order 
to  discover  the  predominant  distinction.  This  is  continued 
until  the  characteristic  element  is  know7i. 

9.  He  concludes  by  judging  the  other  elements  as  to 
their  relation  to  this  central  element. 

This  mental  process  indicated  as  exhibiting  itself  in  a  series 
of  successive  stages  is  the  2C7iiversal  in  a  lesson  because  it  is 


182  The  Problem  of  Method. 

the  form  of  consciousness  to  be  awakened  in  any  case  of 
learning.  It  is  not  really  a  nine-fold  process,  but  rather  a 
detailed  analysis  of  the  three  stages  in  the  fundamental  pro- 
cess of  consciousness.  The  activities  1  to  6  inclusive  consti- 
tute the  stage  of  apprehending  the  object  as  a  whole  indis- 
tinctly. This  indistinct  stage  is  specially  indicated  in  2. 
The  second  or  separative  stage  is  represented  in  7,  while  8 
and  9  constitute  the  third  stage — that  of  re-unifying. 

In  school  work  it  is  seldom  that  the  activities  1  to  6  re- 
quire direct  stimulation.  The  process  in  a  lesson  usually 
involves  2  slightly,  7  distinctly  and  with  considerable  con- 
tinuity, and  8  and  9  in  the  form  of  organization  or  re-uni- 
fying. 

The  process  noted  in  7  may  require  a  series  of  lessons. 
In  that  case  each  distinction  becomes  a  whole  in  itself  and 
stimulates  the  universal  process.  The  elements  of  the  pro- 
cess involved  in  8  and  in  9  are  more  brief  but  more  difficult. 
They  are  not  infrequently  neglected,  and  as  a  rule,  even 
when  stimulated,  they  are  inaccurate  and  incomplete. 

The  Particular.  A  lesson,  as  a  work  of  art,  requires,  how- 
ever, not  merely  a  universal,  but  also  a  particular  aspect 
which  adequately  exhibits  or  stimulates  and  guides  the  uni- 
versal.    This  particular  consists  of 

1.  The  subject-matter  or  the  material  acted  upon.  It  is 
the  exercise -ground  for  the  learning  mind. 

2.  The  acts  of  the  teacher.  These  are  to  be  considered 
in  a  comprehensive  sense  as  including  bearing,  assignment, 
questions,  explanation,  encouragement,  etc. 

3.  The  acts  of  the  pupil.  These  are  replies,  explana- 
tions, questions,  etc.  They  reveal  to  the  teacher  the  condi- 
tion of  the  universal  process.  They  also  increase  the  pupil's 
knowledge  of  the  object. 

4.  Analogous  environment.  The  environment  referred 
to  as  a  stimulant  to  the  universal  process  is  analogous  to 


The  Problem  of  Method.  183 

both  the  subject-matter  and  the  universal  process.  If,  for 
example,  the  subject  matter  is  the  Embarkation  for  Troy, 
pictures  of  Greek  ships,  of  the  gods  and  goddesses,  the  walls 
of  Troy,  etc. ,  would  constitute  an  analogous  environment. 

THE  ESSENTIAI,   ElvEMENTS   IN  A   I^ESSON. 

The  subject-matter.  This  constitutes  the  first  of  the  five 
essential  elements  in  an  organized  lesson.  In  its  definite 
form  the  subject-matter  is  a  direct  result  of  the  principle  or 
process  of  self-determination  in  the  form  of  knowing.  The 
subject-matter  must  be  expressed  so  as  to  indicate  both  the 
general  and  special  aspects.  The  general  indicates  the  ma- 
terial and  the  special  expresses  the  particular  attribute  to 
be  emphasized  in  the  given  lesson. 

It  may  be  of  advantage  to  the  student  to  indicate  the  sub- 
ject-matter in  the  material  expressed  in  the  following  as- 
signment for  a  lesson  based  on  an  extract  from  The  Hia- 
watha Primer :  (The  class  considering  the  extract  belonged 
to  the  third  grade  in  a  rural  school. ) 

Draw  one  line  under  the  word  in  every  sentence  used  to 
express  what  is  being  talked  about. 

The  cradle  was  safely  bound. 

Nokomis  bound  it  with  sinews  of  the  reindeer. 

Hiawatha  rocked  in  his  cradle. 

He  was  in  the  wigwam  of  his  grandmother. 

It  was  dark  and  he  was  fretful. 

Nokomis  stilled  his  fretful  wail. 

She  was  singing  of  the  forest. 

.She  said  the  bear  lived  there. 

She  called  him  the  Naked  Bear. 

Nokomis  rocked  the  cradle  of  Hiawatha,  saying — 
"  Hush  !  the  bear  will  hear  thee  ! 
Hush  !  the  Naked  Bear  will  hear  thee  !  " 

The  Assignme?it. — The  statement  of  the  subject-matter 
usually  awakens  the  thought  of  one  differentation  only.    The 


184  Thk  PROBI.EM  OF  Method. 

assignment  leads  to  the  thought  of  more  than  one  distinc- 
tion. Hence,  in  constructing  the  assignment,  the  teacher 
is  differentiating  the  subject-matter  more  fully  than  in  the 
process  of  discovering  the  general  and  the  particular. 

The  difference  between  the  subject-matter  and  the  assign- 
ment may  be  shown  by  examples  : 

In  history — 

I.  Subject-7natter.  The  actual  growth  of  the  spiritual 
attitude  of  the  American  people  as  revealed  by  the  events 
concerning  slavery  during  Jackson's  administration. 

II.  Assignment. — 

1.  The  condition  of  the  public  mind  concerning  slav- 
ery just  prior  to  Jackson's  administration. 

2.  The  slavery  problem  duripg  Jackson's  administra- 
tion. 

a.  Cause. 

In  the  north. 

Physical. 

Spiritual. 
In  the  south. 

Physical. 

Spiritual. 

b.  Development. 

Through  Garrison. 
What  he  did. 
Results  : 

On  the  north.  * 
Physical. 
Spiritual. 
On  the  south. 
Physical. 
Spiritual. 

c.  Results. 

Immediate. 
Remote. 


The  Problem  of  Method,  185 

Montgomery,  paragraphs  262,  263,  264. 
McMaster,  paragraph  333. 
In  grammar — - 

I.  Subject-matter.     The  basis  of  the  classification  of 
verbs  into  transitive  and  intransitive. 

II.  Assig7ime7it. — 

1.  Tell  the  nature  of  the  attribute  expressed  by  each 
verb  in  the  following  sentences. 

2.  Classify  the  verbs  on  the  basis  of  the  nature  of  the 
attribute  expressed. 

Age  shakes  Athena's  tower  but  spares  gray  Marathon. 

Every  plant  demands  good  soil. 

The  beams  of  the  moon  struggled  through  the  rain. 

The  setting  sun  threw  a  flush  over  nature. 

Time  passes  quickly. 
A  comparison  of  the  subject-matter  and  the  assignment  in 
the  two  cases  will  shovv  that  the  latter  has  as  its  function  to 
awaken  attention  to  more  distinctions  than  were  suggested 
by  the  statement  of  the  subject-matter. 

In  addition  the  assignment  is  intended  to  indicate  the 
order  of  the  distinctions,  and,  to  a  degree,  their  co-ordina- 
tion and  subordination. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  detailed  enough  to  enable  the 
pupil  to  recite  from  it  alone,  as  such  recitation  tends  to  ren- 
der the  lesson  spiritless.  There  must  be  opportunity  for  the 
animation  arising  from  the  teacher's  active  test,  guidance 
and  co-operation. 

The  assignment  is  most  closely  a  stimulus  to  the  first 
process  in  self-determination — the  indistinct  apprehension  of 
the  subject-matter.  Still,  it  fosters  a  transition  into  the 
second  stage.  Viewed  with  reference  to  the  universal  process 
in  a  lesson,  it  is  a  device  to  arouse  the  second  stage  and  to 
promote  a  transition  into  the  seventh. 


186  The  Problem  of  Method. 

The  purpose  of  the  assignment  is  to  awaken  an  indistinct 
consciousness  of 

1.  The  main  material  of  the  lesson. 

2.  The  salient  distinctions. 

3.  The  central  attribute  or  characteristic  with  refer- 
ence to  which  the  subject-matter  is  to  be  examined. 

4.  The  order  of  the  distinctions. 

In  addition  to  this,  its  aim  is  to  stimulate  and  direct  the 
discovery  of  further  distinctions. 

Thus,  the  assignment,  while  related  most  immediately  to 
the  first  process  in  self-determination,  is  a  strong  stimulus 
to  the  second.  It  even  promotes  the  third  process,  to  a  de- 
gree. 

It  would  be  helpful  to  examine  the  two  assignments  given 
above  in  order  to  note  their  relation  to  the  process  of  self- 
determination  and  to  decide  what  changes,  if  any,  can  be 
made  in  order  that  they  may  conform  more  closely  to  the 
purpose  of  an  assignment. 

Attention  should  also  be  given  to  the  relative  advantages 
of— 

The  written  and  the  oral  assignment, 

The  avSsignment  given  at  the  beginning  and  that  given  at 
the  close  of  the  lesson. 

The  Steps. — The  third  element  in  the  structure  of  a  lesson 
is  spoken  of,  in  a  figurative  sense,  as  the  Steps.  According 
to  the  Herbartian  pedagogy,  the  step  is  the  external  activity 
of  the  teacher  and  manifests  itself  in  five  successive  stages. 
The  stages  are  called  the  five  Formal  Steps. 

The  term  step  as  here  employed,  however,  signifies  the 
psychological  activity  of  the  learner.  It  denotes  the  second 
stage  in  self-determination — the  separation  or  special  act  of 
the  learner's  consciousness.  This  step  must,  however, 
since  it  is  the  process  of  the  self,  involve  more  or  less  dis- 
tinctly all  three  stages  of  the  essential  movement  of  con- 


The  Problem  of  Method.  187 

sciousness.  It  is  important  to  remember  that  each  step  in 
a  lesson  is  not  only  a  determination,  but  a  ^^^-determina- 
tion,  because  this  brings  into  prominence  the  fact  that 
some  degree  of  independence  or  origination  is  present. 
The  more  fully  the  process  is  an  example  of  the  learner's 
initiative  or  independence  the  more  clearly  is  it  s^^-deter- 
mination.  Whatever  of  truth  the  pupil  really  grasps,  he 
must  recreate  or  earn.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  induction 
seems  to  be  more  independent,  more  clearly  ^^//-determina- 
tion than  does  deduction.  Neither  is,  however,  the  com- 
plete process  of  self-determination.  Each  is  merely  one 
aspect  of  it.  The  scientific  method  involves,  as  essential 
elements,  both  induction  and  deduction,  but  the  first  is  the 
more  characteristic,  because  it  manifests  the  creative  or  in- 
dependent tendency  the  more  strongly.  It  is  a  mark  of  ar- 
tistic teaching,  therefore,  when  considering  the  character- 
istic step  of  a  lesson  to  ask — 

1.  Is  this  characteristic  step  essentially  inductive? 

2.  How  may  it  be  made  strongly  inductive? 

The  characteristic  step  of  a  lesson  is  the  learner's  activ- 
ity involved  in  the  comprehension  of  the  truth  in  the  sub- 
ject-matter. 

This  characteristic  step  arises  through  subordinate  steps 
which  constitute  its  stages.  For  example,  in  a  given  les- 
son the  characteristic  step  may  be  the  act  of  conceiving  and 
the  subordinate  steps  may  be  the  feeling  of  limit,  sense- 
perceiving,  etc. 

In  the  most  comprehensive  view  the  characteristic  step  of 
a  lesson  can  differentiate  into  three  subordinate  steps  only — 

1.  The  indistinct  apprehension  of  the  object  as  a  whole. 

2.  The  discovery  of  all  of  the  distinctions  in  the  object 
appropriate  to  the  pupil's  stage  of  development,  regarding 
each  distinction  as  independent  or  isolated. 

3.  The  selection  of  the  central  distinction,  and  the  or- 


188  The  Problem  of  Method. 

ganization  of  the  object  by  becoming  aware  of  the  relation 
of  the  other  distinctions  to  the  main  distinction  or  attribute. 

In  a  more  analytic  view  the  steps  are  the  stages  in  the 
full  process  of  a  lesson  indicated  on  page  181. 

In  a  still  more  special  sense  a  step  in  a  lesson  is  any  one 
of  the  activities  of  the  self  in  rendering  subjective  the  ob- 
ject to  learned.  These,  in  so  far  as  the  acts  of  knowing 
are  concerned,  are  indicated  on  pages  174-178.  Each  step" 
consists  of  process  and  meaning  or  of  form  and  content.  To 
render  the  characteristic  step  or  any  subordinate  step  defi- 
nite botli  form  and  content  should  be  given. 

The  Purpose.  — The  purpose  in  life  may  be  said  to  be  the 
establishment  of  the  habit  of  freely  choosing  freedom  itself 
for  the  self  and  others  equally.  To  possess  this  habit  is  to 
have  freedom  both  in  form  and  in  content  The  freedom 
which  is  to  be  chosen  is — 

1.  A  mode  of  knowing  which  promotes  the  independence, 
the  development  of  all  selves. 

2.  Satisfaction  in  a  condition  indicating  a  development 
of  all. 

3.  A  tendency  toward  rational  choice  in  ever}^  one. 

4.  x\  skillful,  disciplined  bodj^  for  every  one. 

The  purpose  in  the  teacher  is  the  act  of  choosing  a  certain 
condition  of  freedom  in  the  pupil.  This  condition  of  free- 
dom in  the  pupil  is  to  be  brought  about  by  his  own  activity 
in  mastering  the  subject-matter  of  the  lesson.  This  act  of 
rendering  subjective  the  subject  matter  of  the  lesson  is  the 
second  stage  of  self-determination  as  explained  on  page  154, 
and  the  tendency  or  effect  produced  by  the  activity  upon  the 
subject-matter  is  the  third  stage. 

The  subject-matter  of  any  single  lesson  is  always  a  frag- 
ment of  the  immediate  larger  whole. 

This  is  the  basis  for  the  distinction  of  the  purpose,  in  so 


The  Problem  of  Method.  189 

far  as  it  relates  to  knowledge,  into  the  special  purpose  and 
the  general  purpose. 

The  special  purpose  is  to  stimulate  in  the  pupil  the  exist- 
ence of  the  adequate  idea  of  the  subject-matter  as  a  habit. 
In  any  given  case  this  idea  must  be  stated  definitely  by  in- 
dicating both  form  and  content. 

The  general  purpose  is  to  awaken  in  the  learner  the  ade- 
quate idea  of  the  immediate  larger  whole.  This  is  partl}^ 
accomplished  in  any  one  lesson.  Its  complete  accomplish- 
ment requires  the  given  lesson  and  one  or  more  additional 
lessons. 

The  statement  of  the  special  and  general  purpose  must 
not  merely  echo  that  of  the  subject-matter.  The  thought 
of  the  subject-matter  should  be  rendered  somewhat  more 
definite  by  that  indicated  in  the  statement  of  the  purpose. 

Since  the  special  subject-matter  of  a  lesson  is  a  fragment 
of  many  larger  immediate  subjects,  the  statement  of  the  gen- 
eral purpose  by  the  teacher  to  himself  is  necessary  to  insure 
the  emphasis  of  the  relations  unifjdng  the  special  subject- 
matter  with  the  selected  larger  whole. 

The  freedom  which  was  said  to  be  the  aim  of  life  is  to  be 
attained — 

1.  "By  elevating  the  individual  to  his  specitd."  He  is 
to  reproduce  in  himself  the  achievements  of  man. 

2.  "By  making  habitual  in  the  individual  activities  that 
reinforce  rational  institutions  and  which,  in  consequence,  the 
rational  institutions  can  afford  to  reinforce." 

These  two  statements  are  merely  different  forms  express- 
ing the  same  meaning. 

In  interpreting  a  lesson  as  to  the  effect  purposed  the  teacher 
or  observer  should 

1.  Indicate,  in  definite  mental  terms  the  special  effect 
purposed. 


190  The  Probi^em  of  Method. 

2.  Identif}^  it  with  freedom,  according  to  either  of  the 
above  statements. 

3.  Explain  briefly  the  identity. 

Devices. — A  device  is  not  merely  some  object,  as  a  map,  or 
a  box  of  geometrical  forms.  It  is  not  a  picture,  a  drawing 
or  an  outline.  It  is  essentiallj^  an  outward  act  of  the 
teacher,  as  a  question,  a  direction,  an  explanation,  a  com- 
mendation, the  use  of  a  map,  the  production  and  use  of  a 
drawing.  A  device  may  include  a  question  or  direction  of 
the  teacher,  a  reply  or  work  at  blackboard  by  the  pupil  and 
the  discussion  of  the  reply  or  of  the  work. 

1.  The  central  requirement  of  a  device  is  that  its  effect 
shall  be  to  concentrate  the  pupiV  s  attention  on  the  object  being 
studied  and  its  relations,  rather  than  upon  his  language,  his 
manner,  the  degree  of  success  he  is  attaining,  the  effect  upon 
his  mental  development,  or  the  impression  he  is  making. 
The  artistic  device  is  one  that  leads  the  pupil  to  become  ob- 
jective, to  lose  himself  in  the  object  and  its  relations. 

The  teacher  is  assumed  to  know  that  knowledge  is  not 
the  end,  but  that  inspiration,  insight,  character,  constitute 
the  end.  Still,  this  is  not  to  be  the  attitude  of  the  pupil  in 
the  recitation.  The  device  should  aid  him  in  becoming  en- 
grossed in  the  object  being  investigated. 

This  characteristic  of  device  is  based  on  the  idea  that  all 
true  development  in  the  pupil  is  due  to  the  concentration  of 
his  interests  in  something  which  seems  to  be  other  than 
himself.  The  doctrine  implied  in  this  function  of  devices  is 
self-estrangement.  {^Philosophy  of  Education,  by  Rosen- 
kranz,  pp.  27-28.)  Self- estrangement  is  the  second  stage 
in  the  law  of  the  self.  The  aim  is  to  enrich  the  mind  of  the 
learner  by  having  the  strange  object  become  familiar.  Thus 
the  central  characteristic  of  all  devices  rests  upon  the  total 
process  of  consciousness  in  that  it  assumes  a  potential  or 
unspecialized  condition  in   so  far  as  the  strange  element  in 


The  Problem  of  Method.  191 

the  object  is  concerned,  stimulates  directly  a  concentration 
upon  the  alien  feature  of  the  object  and  thus  contributes  to 
the  enrichment  of  the  self  which  returns  from  the  estrange- 
ment. 

The  nature  of  the  central  characteristic  of  devices  makes 
it  evident  that  they  should  harmonize  with  the  following 
thought : 

a.  That  the  ideal  in  education  is  the  total  experience 
of  humanity  and  not  merely  knowledge.  It  is  not  enough 
for  the  pupil  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  the  main  facts  con- 
cerning the  Emancipation  Proclamation.  The  aim  must  be 
to  have  him  experience,  to  a  degree,  in  his  particular  life, 
the  total  process  of  the  race  in  objectifying  itself  in  that 
event. 

b.  That  the  change  or  determination  to  be  brought 
about  in  the  child  is  to  be  ^^//-determination.  His  attitude 
must  not  be  that  of  passivit)^  His  initiative  and  choice,  his 
modes  of  expression  and  explanation,  are  to  be  given  en- 
couragement as  fully  as  the  development  contemplated  in 
the  lesson  will  permit.  The  tendencies  to  inquire  and  to 
test  are  to  be  fostered.  For  example,  he  is  to  be  given  free- 
dom from  the  text  b}^  a  series  of  devices  that  will  develop 
the  power  to  wrest  meaning  from  the  text.  Otherwise  he 
wall  become  passive.  The  ability  to  grapple  with  a  difficult 
sentence  or  paragraph  and  to  interpret  it  b}^  an  intelligent 
process  of  study  is  an  important  form  of  ^^^-de termination. 

c.  That  the  pupil' s  process  or  method  in  his  develop- 
ment is  at  once  negative  a?id positive.  It  is  the  renunciation 
of  inaccuracy  and  caprice  in  any  given  instance  and  the  active 
reproduction  of  the  positive  experience  of  the  race  in  regard 
to  the  same  instance.  For  example,  the  pupil  may  have  the 
habit  indicated  in  the  following  :  "If  any  one  wishes  to  read 
some  one  of  a  number  of  books  and  the}^  can  find  no  time  to 
read  them  they  will  become  discouraged."     To  establish  the 


192  The  Probi^em  of  Method. 

pupil's  education  in  regard  to  the  appropriate  language  in 
this  case  requires  both  a  negative  and  a  positive  process,  and 
the  latter  is  in  harmony  with  the  culture  of  the  race.  '  This 
negative  and  positive  process  is  essential  in  all  aspects  of 
education.  To  be  educated  by  a  study  of  the  Tories  of  the 
Revolution,  their  negative  and  their  positive  traits  must  be 
understood.  To  obtain  a  true  development  from  an  investi- 
gation of  a  virtue,  as  truth-telling,  of  a  church  service,  as  a 
prayer-meeting,  of  the  history  of  a  political  party,  the  process 
must  be  one  which  brings  into  consciousness  the  negative 
and  the  positive. 

d.  That  the  teacher  must  identify  himself  as  fully  as 
possible  with  the  pupil  in  his  struggle  to  know  the  object  be- 
ing investigated.  The  pupil  has  his  dim  vision,  his  partial 
insight,  his  separative  attitude,  his  distrust  of  his  own  pow- 
ers, his  dependence  upon  words. 

The  teacher  must  reproduce  these  mental  conditions  in  his 
ow^n  consciousness  as  they  are  manifested  from  time  to  time 
in  the  lesson.  Then  he  must  project  them  and  identify  them 
with  the  pupil,  thus  realizing  strongly  within  himself  that 
they  are  actual  conditions  of  the  pupil's  mind.  He  must 
finally  vividly  think  these  conditions  as  possible  in  himself 
under  similar  conditions.  Thus  he  has  identified  himself 
with  the  pupil,  and  is  in  sympathy  with  him.  This  enables 
the  teacher  to  appreciate  the  pupil's  failures  and  successes, 
and  to  appear  as  a  co-seeker  of  truth.  Teacher  and  pupil  be- 
come, in  a  certain  sense,  comrades  in  a  quest  for  the  un- 
known. 

e.  That  the  central  or  organizing  principle  of  the 
branch  of  study  to  which  the  subject-matter  belongs,  and 
the  process  of  consciousness  suggest  the  order  and  the  con- 
centration of  devices.  For  example,  in  the  study  of  the 
Emancipation  Proclamation  there  should  be  a  concentration 
of  devices  to  develop  a  knowledge  of  the  outward  event,  of 


The  Problem  of  Method.  193 

the  mental  attitude  giving  rise  to  it,  and  of  the  mental  atti- 
tude succeeding  it.  In  the  study  of  each  of  these  three 
aspects  there  should  be  a  concentration  of  devices  to  awaken 
an  indistinct  knowledge  of  the  aspect  as  a  whole  ;  and 
a  clear  knowledge  of  the  distinctions  within  it,  and  of  its 
systematic  unification  upon  its  characteristic  or  dominant 
attribute. 


194  The  Probi^em  of  Method. 


APPENDIX. 


SERIES   OF   SENTENCES   EXPRESSING  THE 
STAGES  IN  VARIOUS  ACTIVITIES. 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  A  FOUR-INCH  SQUARE. 

The  point  is  resting. 
It  moves  to  the  right  four  inches. 
It  rests  again. 
A  straight  line  appears. 
It  is  horizontal. 

The  point  moves  perpendicularly  downward  four  inches. 
It  rests  a  third  time. 
A  second  straight  line  is  produced. 
It  is  vertical. 

It  is  perpendicular  to  the  first  line. 
The  difference  in  direction  forms  an  angle. 
It  is  a  right  angle. 

The  point  moves  perpendicularly  to  the  left  four  inches. 
It  rests  a  fourth  time. 
A  third  straight  line  is  formed. 
It  is  horizontal. 
It  is  parallel  to  the  first  line. 
It  is  perpendicular  to  the  second  line. 
The  difference  in  direction  of  the  second  and  third  lines 
forms  a  right  angle. 

The  point  moves  directly  to  the  place  of  starting. 
A  fourth  straight  line  is  produced. 
Here  the  point  finally  rests. 


The  Problem  of  Method.  195 

filling  a  tea  kettle. 
I  am  standing  near  the  kitchen  window. 
I  am  looking  out  of  the  window. 
I  know  the  tea  kettle  is  empty. 
I  think  of  the  tea  kettle  as  filled. 
I  go  to  the  stove. 

I  take  hold  of  the  knob  on  the  lid  of  the  tea  kettle. 
I  remove  the  lid  of  the  tea  kettle. 
I  continue  to  hold  the  lid  in  my  left  hand. 
I  walk  to  the  bucket  of  water. 
I  find  the  dipper  hanging  on  a  nail. 
I  take  hold  of  the  handle  of  the  dipper  near  the  bowl. 
I  fill  the  dipper  with  water. 

I  walk  to  the  stove  with  the  dipper  full  of  water. 
I  pour  the  water  from  the  dipper  into  the  tea  kettle. 
I  walk  to  the  water  bucket  again. 
I  fill  the  dipper  a  second  time. 
I  walk  back  to  the  stove. 

I  empty  the  water  from  the  dipper  into  the  tea  kettle. 
A  third  time  I  walk  to  the  bucket  of  water. 
I  refill  the  dipper. 

I  pour  the  contents  of  the  dipper  into  the  tea  kettle. 
I  place  the  lid  on  the  tea  kettle. 
I  hang  the  dipper  up  in  its  proper  place. 
I  return  Ito  the  window. 
I  again  look  out  of  the  window. 

THE  ACT  OF  SPRINKLING  A  SLATE. 

Edwin  sits  at  his  desk. 

He  stands. 

He  walks  toward  the  sprinkling  bottle. 

He  draws  near  to  the  sprinkling  bottle. 

He  reaches  out  his  hand. 

He  takes  hold  of  the  sprinkling  bottle. 


196  The  Problem  of  Method. 

He  turns. 

He  walks  toward  his  desk. 

He  draws  near  to  his  desk. 

He  stops. 

He  turns  the  sprinkling  bottle  up  side  down. 

He  throws  water  on  his  slate. 

He  throws  w^ater  on  his  slate  again. 

He  turns  the  sprinkling  bottle  right  side  up. 

He  walks  toward  the  black  board. 

He  draws  near  to  the  black  board. 

He  reaches  out  his  hand. 

He  places  the  sprinkling  bottle  in  the  ledge. 

He  turns. 

He  walks  to  his  desk. 

He  sits  at  his  desk. 

AN  ACT  IN  GRAVITATION. 

A  guinea-and-feather  tube  is  lying  on  the  table. 

It  is  full  of  air. 

A  circle  of  paper  and  one  of  brass  are  in  the  tube. 

They  are  of  the  same  size. 

I  pick  up  the  tube. 

I  hold  it  in  my  hand  with  the  top  up. 

I  invert  it. 

The  force  of  gravitation  pulls  the  paper  and  the  brass 
toward  the  center  of  the  earth. 

The  air  resists  the  downward  movement. 

The  brass  displaces  the  air  and  falls  rapidly  to  the  lower 
end  of  the  tube. 

The  paper  displaces  the  air  more  slowly  than  does  the 
brass. 

It  flutters  in  the  air. 

It  finally  reaches  the  lower  end  of  the  tube. 

I  turn  the  tube  top  end  up. 


The  PROBI.EM  OF  Method.  197 

The  force  of  gravitation  pulls  the  paper  and  the  brass 
toward  the  center  of  the  earth. 

The  brass  reaches  the  bottom  sooner  than  the  paper. 

I  screw  a  stop-cock  to  the  bottom  of  the  tube. 

I  fasten  one  end  of  a  rubber  tube  to  the  stop-cock. 

I  fasten  the  other  end  to  the  air  pump. 

I  grasp  the  handle  of  the  air  pump. 

I  move  it  vigorously  up  and  down  many  times. 

This  exhausts  the  air  from  the  tube. 

I  turn  the  thumb-screw  on  the  stop-cock. 

This  prevents  the  air  from  entering  the  tube. 

I  take  the  rubber  tube  off  the  stop-cock. 

I  again  invert  the  tube. 

The  paper  and  the  brass  reach  the  lower  end  of  the  tube 
at  the  same  time. 

A  RKPI.Y  TO  AN  INVITATION. 

Edna  is  in  receipt  of  an  invitation  to  dinner. 

She  recalls  all  her  engagements  for  the  week. 

She  finds  that  she  has  no  engagement  for  the  evening 
named  in  the  invitation. 

She  decides  to  accept  the  invitation. 

She  goes  to  the  writing  desk. 

She  selects  a  sheet  of  un-ruled  note  paper,  black  ink,  and 
a  good  pen. 

She  writes  the  following  note  : 

Miss  Edna  Crafton  accepts  with  pleasure  Miss  Katharine  Stanford's 
kind  invitation  to  dine  with  her  on  Monday  evening. 

She  selects  an  envelope  to  correspond  with  her  paper. 

She  folds  the  note  once. 

She  slips  it  into  the  envelope. 

She  addresses  it. 

She  places  a  stamp  on  the  upper  right  hand  corner  of  the 
envelope. 

She  posts  the  note. 


198  The  Probi^em  of  Method. 

a  test  in  chemistry. 

I  place  the  oxygen  generator  on  the  table. 

I  fill  one-third  of  a  test-tube  with  potassium  chlorate  and 
black  oxide  of  manganese. 

I  cork  the  tube  and  connect  by  rubber  tubing  with  the 
bottles  in  the  generator. 

I  light  the  gas. 

I  heat  the  tube  gently  at  first. 

I  gradually  increase  the  heat. 

The  heats  expands  the  air  in  the  tube. 

The  air  escapes  in  bubbles. 

The  air  escapes  more  rapidly  in  bubbles. 

I  heat  the  tube  until  I  have  sufficient  oxygen  for  my  pur- 
pose. 

I  cover  one  of  the  bottles  with  a  glass  slide  so  that  the 
oxygen  will  not  escape. 

I  remove  the  bottle. 

I  take  a  piece  of  magnesium  ribbon. 

I  put  it  into  the  flame. 

It  burns  with  a  bluish-white  light. 

It  combines  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air. 

It  forms  a  white  powder. 

This  powder  is  oxide  of  magnesium. 

I  take  another  piece  of  magnesium  ribbon. 

I  light  it  in  the  flame. 

I  remove  the  slide  from  the  bottle. 

I  put  the  ribbon  into  the  bottle. 

It  burns  with  a  blue  light. 

It  deposits  a  white  powder. 

I  compare  this  powder  with  the  powder  left  from  the  first 
experiment. 

I  find  they  are  similar. 

I  conclude  that  the  magnesium  ribbon  burns  more  freely 
in  the  bottle  than  in  the  air. 


The  Problem  of  Method. 


199 


I  see  that  it  burns  more  freely  in  the  bottle  since  there  is 
more  oxygen  there. 

I  infer  that  in  both  cases  the  magnesium  unites  with  the 
oxygen. 

THE  ACT  OF  LAYING  A  BRICK. 

The  mason  stands  beside  the  wall  which  he  is  building. 

He  procures  a  trowel  full  of  mortar  from  the  mortarboard. 

He  spreads  it  evenly  over  the  place  where  he  intends  to 
la}^  the  brick. 

He  gets  another  trowel  full  of  mortar. 

He  picks  up  a  brick  from  the  ground. 

He  throws  up  a  cross  or  header  joint. 

He  lays  the  brick  on  the  wall  very  carefully. 

He  probably  taps  the  brick  lightly  with  the  handle  of  the 
trowel,  or  with  the  edge  of  the  blade. 

This  settles  the  brick  into  the  correct  position. 

He  scrapes  the  mortar,  which  has  been  pushed  out  by  the 
brick,  from  the  side  of  the  wall. 

He  spreads  the  mortar,  just  gathered,  over  the  top  of  the 
brick. 

He  pauses  ia  his  work  to  speak  with  a  friend  who  is  pass- 
ing. 

TRANSACTION  ON  SHORT  CREDIT. 

James  Smith,  the  grocer,  sells  John  Jones  ten  pounds  of 
sugar  and  ten  pounds  of  salt  on  credit,  the  account  to  be 
paid  in  a  short  time. 

Mr.  Smith  turns  to  his  day-book  and  makes  an  entry,  thus: 


Nov, 


John  Jones,  Dr. 

To  10  ft)  Sugar  @  6c. 
10ft)  Salt  @  2c. 


20 


80 


In  the  evening,  Mr.  Smith  posts  this  account  in  his  led- 
ger, which  in  this  case  is  a  small  indexed  account  file,  with 
detachable  slips. 


200 


The  Problkm  of  Method. 


In  ten  da3's  Mr.  Jones  calls  to  pay  his  account. 

Mr.  Smith  immediately  opens  his  account  j51e  at  the  letter 
*'J,"  and  sees  Mr.  Jones'  account. 

He  takes  out  the  slip,  receipts  it,  and  hands  it  to  Mr. 
Jones,  who  thereupon  pays  it. 

Mr.  Smith  then  turns  to  his  cash  register  and  registers  80 
cents,  counting  it  as  a  cash  sale  of  the  day. 

TRANSACTION  INVOI.VING  AN  INDEFINITE  ACCOUNT. 

James  Smith,  the  grocer,  is  asked  by  John  Jones  for  credit 
for  three  or  four  months. 

Mr.  Smith  consents,  takes  his  order,  and  enters  it  in  his 
day-book,  thus  : 


Nov.       9     John  Jones,  Dr. 

To  10  ft)  Sugar  @  6c. 

10ft)  Salt  @,  2c.  20 

In  the  evening  Mr.  Smith  opens  an  account  with  Mr.  Jones 
in  a  large  ledger  in  which  he  keeps  all  accounts  which  run 
indefinitely,  and  makes  an  entry,  thus : 

Dr.  JOHN  JONES,  Cr. 


Nov. 


To  Mdse. 


Page 
Day 
Book 


80c 


Page 
Cash 
Book 


All  succeeding  orders  are  posted  nightly  to  this  same  ac- 
count. 

In  three  months'  time  Mr.  Jones  calls  to  pay  his  account. 

Mr.  Smith  turns  to  his  ledger,  states  the  amount,  and  re- 
ceives the  cash. 

Mr.  Smith  then  makes  out  a  bill  and  receipts  it,  giving  it 
to  Mr.  Jones. 

He  then  takes  his  cash-book  and  makes  an  entry,  credit- 
ing Mr.  Jones'  account  in  full 

This  Cash-book  entry  is  posted  in  the  ledger,  and  Mr. 
Jones'  account  is  balanced  and  closed  up. 


The  Problem  of  Method.  201 

printing  a  book. 

The  author  takes  the  manuscript  cop}^  for  a  book  to  the 
printer. 

He  tells  the  printer  the  size  of  the  pages,  kind  and  size 
of  type  wanted  and  how  the  book  is  to  be  bound. 

The  printer  takes  the  copy  and  examines  it  carefully  so  as 
to  understand  the  nature  of  the  work  before  him. 

He  then  adjusts  a  composing  vStick  to  the  width  of  the 
book  pages,  so  that  the  lines  of  the  reading  matter  will  be 
of  exactly  the  same  length. 

He  then  takes  the  copy  and  composing  stick  to  the  case 
of  type  selected  for  the  book. 

He  picks  the  letters  one  by  one  from  the  case,  spelling  the 
words  as  they  appear  in  the  manuscript  of  the  author. 

He  continues  to  pick  up  the  letters,  one  by  one,  spelling 
word  after  word,  making  line  upon  line,  until  he  comes  to 
the  end  of  the  copy. 

He  then  carries  the  t3^pe  lines  to  the  proof  press. 

He  runs  a  soft  roller  covered  with  ink  over  the  type. 

He  places  the  inked  type  on  the  proof  press  with  a  sheet 
of  paper  over  them  and  prints  a  proof  sheet. 

He  sends  this  proof  sheet  to  the  author. 

The  author  reads  it  over  carefully,  noting  and  marking 
all  errors. 

He  then  returns  it  to  the  printer. 

The  printer  corrects  the  errors  which  the  author  has 
marked. 

He  then  divides  the  lines  up  into  pages,  and  puts  a  head 
line  and  page  number  over  each  page. 

He  lays  all  the  pages  on  the  imposing  stone. 

He  places  an  iron  frame  around  them,  called  a  "  chase." 

He  places  the  pages  in  their  proper  positions  in  this 
"chase"  and  fastens  them  there. 

He  sends  the  type,  fastened  in  the  chase,  to  the  pressman. 


202  The  Probi^em  of  Method. 

The  pressman  places  the  t3^pe  on  the  press. 

He  fastens  it  there  so  that  it  cannot  move. 

He  runs  a  sheet  of  paper  of  proper  size,  and  the  type 
through  the  press. 

The  result  is  that  he  has  printed  a  sheet  of  paper  covered 
with  pages  of  the  book. 

He  runs  another  sheet  of  paper  and  the  type  through  the 
press. 

He  has  printed  another  sheet  of  pages. 

He  repeats  this  operation  until  the  required  number  of 
sheets  have  been  printed. 

He  then  sends  the  printed  pages  to  the  book-binder. 

The  book-binder  folds  the  printed  sheets  so  that  the  pages 
follow  in  proper  order  as  one  finds  them  in  the  finished  book. 

He  sews  the  different  sheets  of  the  book  together. 

He  takes  the  sewed  books  to  the  trimming  machine. 

He  places  the  books  in  the  machine  and  trims  them  so 
that  they  are  smooth  on  the  edges  and  of  the  same  size. 

He  fastens  the  outside  covers  on  the  books. 

The  books  are  delivered  to  the  author. 

He  examines  the  complete  book. 

A  GEOI.OGIC  ACTIVITY. 

A  granite  peak  stands  upon  the  crest  of  a  mountain  range. 

The  rock  is  made  up  of  white  crystalline  masses  of  hard 
quartz,  red  cryvStalline  masses  of  softer  feldspar,  and  glitter- 
ing gold-colored  leaves  of  soft  mica. 

The  rain  and  snow  water  soak  into  the  pores  of  the  rock. 

The  water  fre^es  in  the  pores  of  the  rock  and  by  expand- 
ing makes  cracks  in  it. 

The  water  dissolves  and  carries  away  some  portions  of  the 
rock,  and  thus  loosens  the  undissolved  portions. 

When  the  sun  shines  the  rock  gets  very  warm  and  ex- 
pands ;  when  the  sun  sets  the  rock  gets  very  cold  and  con- 


The  Problem  of  Method.  203 

tracts  ;  the  expansion  and  contraction  break  it  up  still  more. 

The  roots  of  trees  penetrate  the  cracks,  and  as  they  grow 
in  size  force  the  sides  of  the  cracks  further  apart. 

The  air  goes  into  the  rock  with  the  water  and  rots  and 
softens  some  of  the  material. 

The  larger  and  more  numerous  the  cracks  become  the  more 
is  the  rock  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  air,  water,  heat  and 
frost. 

As  soon  as  a  piece  of  rock,  large  or  small,  becomes  loos- 
ened, gravity  pulls  it  down  the  steep  slope. 

The  rain  and  melted  snow  run  over  the  surface  and  wash 
away  the  loose  fragments. 

In  the  course  of  thousands  of  years  the  granite  peak 
crumbles  to  pieces  and  is  carried  away  down  into  the  valley. 

The  stream  at  the  bottom  of  the  valley  carries  away  the 
fragments  of  rock  that  fall  into  it. 

When  the  snows  melt  in  the  spring  the  stream  is  a  torrent 
which  rolls  and  pushes  along  great  stones  and  boulders. 

When  the  flood  vSubsides  the  stream  is  able  to  carry  only 
sand  and  gravel. 

As  the  sand,  gravel  and  boulders  are  carried  down  stream 
they  are  knocked  about  and  rolled  over  one  another  and 
against  the  rocky  bed  of  the  stream. 

The  corners  and  edges  of  the  sand  grains  and  gravel  stones 
are  worn  off  ;  they  grow  smaller  in  size  and  become  more 
and  more  rounded. 

As  the}^  go  further  down  stream  the  pieces  of  hard  quartz 
change  least  rapidly,  but  the  softer  pieces  of  feldspar  and 
mica  are  reduced  to  a  fine  soft  powder. 

The  quartz  never  becomes  finer  than  sand. 

The  stream  is  joined  by  other  streams  and  becomes  a  river. 

The  river  carries  along  in  its  current  the  rounded  gravel, 
the  grains  of  sand  and  the  fine,  soft  powder,  now  called  mud 
or  clay. 


204  .  The  Problem  of  Method. 

As  the  river  approaches  the  sea  its  slope  becomes  more 
gentle  and  its  current  slower. 

As  the  current  slackens  it  is  less  able  to  carry  the  coarser 
material. 

It  first  drops  the  gravel,  then  the  sand,  and  finally  is  able 
to  carry  only  the  mud. 

At  high  water  the  force  of  the  stream  is  greater,  and  it 
picks  up  again  the  sediment  it  has  dropped,  only  to  drop  it 
again  further  down  stream. 

The  sediment  is  drop|)ed  and  picked  up  again  a  thousand 
times,  but  at  last  is  carried  into  the  ocean. 

As  the  current  of  the  river  is  gradually  checked  by  the 
still  water  of  the  ocean,  the  coarser  particles  of  sediment 
settle  to  the  bottom  and  form  a  sand  bar. 

The  finer  mud  is  carried  further  out  to  sea  and  settles  to 
form  a  mud  bank. 

Thus  the  tendency  of  the  river  is  to  sort  out  the  coarse  sed- 
iment from  the  fine,  and  to  deposit  all  the  sand  in  one  place 
and  all  the  mud  in  another. 

The  velocity  of  the  current  varies  from  season  to  season 
and  from  year  to  year. 

The  river  at  one  time  deposits  sand  and  at  another  time 
mud,  in  the  same  place. 

The  sediment  is  always  deposited  in  nearly  horizontal  lay- 
ers, one  above  another,  and  is  always  more  or  less  assorted 
into  layers  of  sand  and  layers  of  clay. 

Frequently  the  sand  and  clay  are  mixed  together  in  the 
same  layer,  and.  in  different  proportions  in  different  layers. 

The  waves,  tides  and  currents  of  the  ocean  transport  and 
assort  or  mix  up  the  river  sediment  and  deposit  it  again  in 
new  forms  and  positions. 

Everywhere  along  the  coast  and  for  miles  out  to  sea  the 
waste  of  the  land  accumulates  in  beds  of  sand  and  clay. 


The  Problem  of  Method.  205 

As  the  beds  are  piled  on  each  other  the  pressure  on  the 
lower  ones  becomes  greater. 

The  sand  beds  are  compressed  and  consolidated  into  sand- 
stone, the  clay  beds  into  shale  and  the  mixed  beds  into  mixed 
sandstone  and  shale. 

The  pile  becomes  very  thick  and  heavy,  and  with  the  ever- 
increasing  load  the  crust  of  the  earth  under  it  is  pressed 
down. 

The  crust  of  the  earth  is  not  strong  enough  to  sustain  the 
weight  and  slowly  sinks,  forming  a  great  trough. 

As  the  trough  becomes  deeper  it  is  kept  even  full  of  sedi- 
ment. 

As  the  thickness  of  the  sediment  increases  the  upper  sur- 
face remains  near  the  surface  of  the  water. 

The  sediment  sometimes  becomes  eight  miles  thick. 
As  the  beds  of  sandstone  and  shale  sink  nearer  to  the 
centre  of  the  earth  they  grow  hotter. 

At  a  certain  depth  they  become  as  hot  as  red-hot  iron. 
The  pores  of  the  sandstone  and  shale  are  filled  with  sea 
water. 

By  means  of  the  great  pressure  of  the  beds  above  them, 
the  high  temperature  and  the  water,  the  sandstone  and  shale 
become  partially  liquid. 

In  the  course  of  ages  the  mineral  matter  of  which  they 
are  composed  again  crystalizes  into  masses  of  hard,  white 
quartz,  softer  red  feldspar  and  soft,  glittering  mica. 

The  sand  and  mud  beds  have  been  converted  into  granite. 
The  looseness  and  softness  of  the  material  which  fills  the 
trough  of  the  earth-crust  makes  the  crust  weaker  all  along 
the  shore  of  a  continent. 

The  pressure  from  the  stronger  earth-crust  on  both  sides 
squeezes  the  weaker  part  of  the  crust  into  wrinkles  and 
folds. 


206  Thk  Problem  of  Method. 

The  folds  are  slowly  crushed  together  and  slowly  raised 
higher. 

The  upper  edges  of  the  folds  rise  above  the  sea  and  are 
finally  pushed  up  into  new  mountain  ranges. 

Air,  rain,  heat,  frost  and  gravity  attack  the  rising  land. 

The  covering  of  sandstone  and  shale  is  finally  stripped  off, 
exposing  the  granite  below  them. 

Again  a  granite  peak  stands  upon  the  crest  of  a  mountain 
range, 

THE  ACT  BY  WHICH  AN  ALIEN  BECOMES  A  CITIZEN. 

Mr.  Shannon  comes  to  the  United  States  from  Ireland. 

He  wishes  to  become  a  citizen  of  the  United  States. 

He  presents  himself  before  the  District  Court  of  the  United 
States. 

He  declares  his  intention  to  become  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States. 

This  declaration  is  recorded  by  the  Clerk  of  the  Court. 

He  receives  a  certificate  from  the  Clerk. 

He  returns  to  his  home. 

He  spends  his  time  in  work  at  his  trade. 

He  also  makes  himself  familiar  with  the  laws  of  the  United 
States. 

He  again  presents  himself  before  the  Court. 

He  proves  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Court  that  he  has  re- 
sided five  years  within  the  United  States. 

He  also  proves  that  he  has  lived  in  the  State  one  year. 

He  affirms  that  he  has  borne  a  good  moral  character. 

He  proves  that  he  has  been  well  disposed  toward  the  Con- 
stitution and  government. 

He  renounces  allegiance  to  every  foreign  power,  includ- 
ing that  of  which  he  was  formerly  a  subject. 

He  declares  on  oath  that  he  will  support  the  Constitution 
of  the  United  States. 

He  receives  his  certificate  of  citizenship  from  the  Clerk. 


The  Problem  of  Method.  207 

how  an  acorn  becomes  an  acorn  again. 

An  acorn  has  just  fallen  from  an  oak  tree. 

The  acorn  consists  of  a  germ  surrounded  by  a  hard  outer 
covering  which  serves  for  protection. 

The  germ  has  stored  within  it  large  amounts  of  nourish- 
ment which  it  is  to  use  in  its  growth  until  it  shall  have  de- 
veloped far  enough  to  make  its  own  food. 

The  germ  consists  of  a  little  stem,  the  caulicle,  of  two 
seed  leaves,  the  cotyledons,  and  of  the  tiny  plumule. 

The  cold  winds  of  fall  and  the  snow  and  frosts  of  winter 
make  the  acorn  lie  dormant  during  these  seasons. 

Approaching  spring  ushers  in  bright  sunshine  and  warm 
rains. 

The  warmth  and  moisture  quicken  the  latent  energies  of 
the  acorn. 

The  germ  begins  to  imbibe  water,  and  swells. 

The  insoluble  foodstuffs  stored  in  the  acorn  are  converted 
into  soluble  ones  by  the  energy  of  the  germ. 

A  dialysis  of  this  material  causes  a  flow  of  these  food- 
stuffs to  the  growing  points  of  the  acorn. 

The  continued  swelling  caused  by  all  these  changes  bursts 
the  acorn  shell. 

Out  of  the  cleft  the  growing  caulicle  protrudes. 

The  caulicle  rapidly  elongates  and  penetrates  the  ground 
a  short  distance. 

On  the  underground  portion  of  the  caulicle  small  rootlets 
begin  to  grow. 

The  seed  leaves  remaining  in  the  shell  furnish  nourish- 
ment to  the  growing  parts. 

The  first  leaves  of  the  plumule  appear  above  ground. 

The  sunshine  on  the  plumule  leaves  incites  the  production 
in  the  leaf  of  green  chlorophyll. 

By  means  of  this  chlorophyll  the  young  plant  forms  the 
third  set  of  leaves  as  well  as  the  growing  tip  of  the  stem. 


208  The  Problem  of  Method. 

On  the  growing  tip  new  leaves  appear  in  regular  succes- 
sion. 

In  the  axils  of  thCvSe  leaves  branches  grow. 

By  the  continued  growth  of  these  parts  the  little  germ  be- 
comes a  small  oak  plant. 

A  continuation  of  the.se  changes  through  many  years 
changes  the  oak  plant  into  an  oak  tree. 

The  oak  tree  bears  small  inconspicuous  flowers. 

These  flowers  are  of  two  kinds. 

The  sterile  flowers  produce  stamens  in  which  many  small 
powdery  grains  called  pollen  grains  are  found. 

The  fertile  flowers  produce  pistils 

Bach  pistil  bears  two  ovules. 

The  wind  carries  some  of  the  pollen  grains  to  the  tip  of 
the  pistil  called  the  stigma. 

The  pollen  grains  grow  down  through  the  pistil  until  they 
reach  the  ovules. 

They  penetrate  into  the  ovules  and  fuse  with  the  egg  cell. 

The  egg  cell  of  one  ovule  grows  into  a  small  germ. 

The  other  ovule  becomes  abortive. 

Each  pistil  now  contains  but  one  germ  or  seed. 

The  germ  develops  large  seed  leaves  or  cotyledons  and 
stores  them  with  nourishment. 

The  pistil  forms  a  firm  shell  around  the  contained  seed. 

The  calyx  of  the  flower  helps  to  form  this  shell. 

The  involucre  around  the  base  of  the  pistil  forms  a  leafy 
cup  in  which  the  ripened  pistil  rests. 

The  leafy  involucre  and  the  pistil  are  together  commonly 
termed  the  acorn. 

The  acorn  receives  nourishment  all  during  the  summer 
season  from  the  parent  oak. 

In  autumn  the  acorn  is  fully  formed  or  ripe. 

The  autumn  winds  begin  to  blow. 

Again  an  acorn  falls  from  an  oak  tree. 


The  Problem  of  Method.     *  209 

cell  action. 

A  new  cell  has  just  been  added  to  the  developing  egg. 

The  cell  consists  of  a  cell  body  and  a  nucleus. 

The  cell  body  consists  mainly  of  protoplasm  containing 
food  particles. 

The  nucleus  consists  of  firmer  protoplasmic  threads  form- 
ing a  "  network  "  of  fibres. 

In  this  network  is  contained  also  fluid  protoplasm. 

The  entire  nucleus  is  surrounded  by  a  very  delicate  mem- 
brane— the  nuclear  membrane. 

A  slightly  firmer  layer  of  protoplasm  often  makes  a  cell 
wall  for  the  cell  body. 

Close  to  the  nucleus  lies  a  little  roundish  body  called  the 
centrosome. 

The  living  new  cell  takes  in  nourishment  and  grows. 

Soon  it  is  ready  to  divide  itself  and  produce  a  second  new 
cell. 

The  centrosome  divides  into  two  centresomes  and  they 
begin  to  move  to  the  opposite  ends  of  the  cell. 

The  membrane  of  the  nucleus  and  the  nuclear  threads 
seem  to  dissolve  and  vanish. 

They  soon  reappear,  however,  in  the  form  of  a  very  long 
and  fine  coiled  thread. 

Around  the  centrosomes,  as  soon  as  they  separate,  radiat- 
ing rays  arise. 

Between  the  centrosomes  these  rays  unite  and  form  a  so- 
called  spindle. 

On  the  opposite  sides  of  the  centrosomes  the  rays  diverge, 
like  the  rays  from  the  sun. 

The  centrosomes  assume  such  a  position  that  the  body  of 
the  spindle  runs  through  the  changing  nucleus. 

The  finely  coiled  thread  of  the  nucleus  becomes  much 
shorter  and  thicker. 

The  shortening  and  thickening  continues  until  the  whole 


210  •       The  Problem  of  Method. 

thread  is  reduced  to  comparative!}^  few  folds — frequently 
twelve. 

The  folded  thread  now  breaks  up  into  separate  pieces, 
equal  in  number  to  the  folds  just  described. 

Each  V-vShaped  piece  now  splits  longitudinally,  and  the 
number  of  V's  is  doubled. 

Half  the  V's  now  travel  to  one  centrosome,  the  other  half 
to  the  other  centrosome. 

They  arrange  themselves  in  each  case  around  the  centro- 
some, so  that  they  touch  at  their  ends. 

They  fuse  at  their  ends,  and  the  twelve  V's  become  a 
folded  thread. 

This  folded  thread  becomes  longer  and  finer. 

It  soon  becomes  similar  to  the  original  nucleus  from  which 
it  came. 

It  has  formed  in  each  case  a  network  of  nuclear  fibres  and 
a  nuclear  membrane. 

Lying  close  to  it  as  before  is  the  centrosome. 

The  cell  body  now  constricts  itself  in  the  median  plane, 
and  soon  divides  itself  into  two  smaller  halves. 

The  radiating  lines  from  the  centrosome  disappear. 

When  the  division  of  the  cell  body  is  complete  the  two 
Tialves  become  .separate,  and  two  new  cells  have  been  derived 
from  the  preceding  cell. 

Again  a  new  cell  has  been  added  to  the  developing  egg. 
Etc. 
It  is  to  be  assumed  that  before  entering  upon  the  work  of 
guiding  the  pupils  in  constructing  a  series,  the  teacher  has 
clearly  in  mind  the  nature  of  the  entire  activity,  and  also 
the  form  of  the  various  sentences  in  which  this  activity  is  to 
be  expreSvSed,  substantially.  The  pupil  is  not  assumed  to 
know  either.  The  work  begins  with  the  consideration  of 
the  action.     In  no  case  are  the  sentences  to  be  given  to  the 


The  Problem  of  Method.  211 

child.     The  pupils  are  actually  to  construct  each  series  and 
the  work  is  to  be  largely  oral. 

The  teacher  should  begin  by  indicating  the  purpose  of  the 
activity  to  be  expressed. 

The  thought  underlying  the  first  sentence  of  the  series, 
is  then  to  be  worked  out  carefully.  For  example,  in  the 
series  concerning  the  tea  kettle  the  child's  attention  should 
be  turned  to  the  entire  action  expressed  by  the  sentence  and 
then  to  the  meaning  expressed  by  '  *  near  " ,  "  window  ' ' , 
* '  kitchen  ' ' ,  etc.  The  sentence  which  is  finally  constructed 
to  express  the  entire  action  is  to  be  settled  upon  only  after 
careful  comparison  and  discrimination  concerning  words. 
For  example,  the  teacher  should  lead  the  childi-en  to  think 
whether  it  would  be  more  appropriate  to  employ  ' '  stands  ' ' , 
or  ' '  am  standing  ' '  ;  whether  to  employ  * '  at  " ,  * '  by  "  or 
'*  near",  etc. 

In  all  this,  as  above  indicated,  the  sentence  is  not  to  be 
put  before  the  children  in  its  visible  form.  It  is  to  be  dealt 
with  only  orally.  The  exact  form  of  the  sentence  having 
been  decided  upon,  it  is  then  to  be  made  the  property  of 
each  member  of  the  class  orally.  In  the  exercises  on  this 
point  the  work  of  the  teacher  must  be  controlled  closeh^  by 
the  language  act  ;  that  is,  he  is  at  all  times  to  lead  the  pupil: 

1.  To  obtain  the  meaning  (the  object  in  language). 

2.  To  think  the  expression,  (the  expression  in  lan- 
guage). 

3.  To  think  their  correspondence,  (the  harmony,  the 
correspondence  in  language). 

This  work  in  mastering  the  sentence  orally,  involves 
everything  under  the  pronunciation,  enunciation,  modula- 
tion, emphasis,  etc. 

One  by  one,  each  sentence  of  the  series  is  to  receive  sub- 
stantially the  same  treatment.  The  series  of  sentences  is  to 
be  so  thoroughly  learned  orally,  that  the  child  can  begin 


212  The  Problem  of  Method. 

with  the  first  partial  action  of  the  larger  concrete  activity, 
and  both  think  the  various  subordinate  acts  in  their  true 
succession,  and  express  these  successive  acts  by  the  corre- 
sponding oral  sentences. 

The  various  natural  divisions  in  the  activity  are  to  be 
noted  by  the  pupil,  and  to  be  indicated  in  his  oral  expres- 
sion. 

The  foregoing  deal  with  the  actions  and  the  correspond- 
ing sentences  as  a  whole.  This  having  been  done,  each 
pupil  is  to  be  made  able  to  select  the  essential  element  of  the 
entire  action  expressed  in  a  sentence  ;  to  employ  the  w^ord 
or  words  expressing  it,  and  thus  to  move  through  the  entire 
activity,  employing  only  the  words  asserting  the  action.  In 
the  series  concerning  the  tea  kettle,  the  pupil  should  give, 
' '  am  standing  " ,  "  am  looking  " ,  "  know  " ,  "  think  ' ' , 
"  go  " ,  "  take  hold  of  " ,  "  remove  ' ' ,  etc. 

This  kind  of  work  is  undertaken  in  order  to  give  the  pupil 
the  habit  of  selecting  the  central  action  in  the  entire  activity, 
and  of  recognizing  especially  the  vital  element  in  the  sen- 
tence— the  verb. 

In  conducting  the  work  upon  this  and  other  features,  it  is 
often  helpful  to  have  the  pupils  assist  in  directing  the  work. 
That  is,  the  pupils  may  at  various  times  act  as  teacher — 
asking  questions,  giving  directions,  expressing  the  commen- 
dations or  cautions  concerning  the  nature  of  the  work,  etc. 

The  foundation  series  of  sentences  constructed  by  the 
pupils  should  be,  as  a  rule,  in  the  form  of  the  present  tense, 
third  person,  singular,  indicative  mode.  This  is  the  natural 
expression  for  the  child.  In  the  series  above  referred  to, 
the  form  worked  out  by  the  children  should  be  : 

She  is  standing  near  the  kitchen  window. 

She  is  looking  out  of  the  window,  etc. 

The  pupils  should  be  led  to  see  in  any  given  series  the  re- 
lation of  means  to  end.     This  should  be  emphasized.     The 


The  Problem  of  Method.  213 

action  expressed  by  the  first  sentence  is  a  means  to  that  ex- 
pressed by  the  second.  The  action  expressed  by  the  second 
sentence  is  a  means  to  that  expressed  by  the  third,  etc. 
While  this  may  not  be  true  in  every  possible  case,  it  is  the 
general  rule  and  the  controlling  thought  in  determining  the 
order  of  the  actions  to  be  expressed. 

Not  only  is  the  action  expressed  in  a  given  sentence  a 
means  to  that  expressed  in  the  following  sentence,  but  also 
the  action  in  any  sentence  is  the  end  or  result  of  a  series  of 
subordinate  actions.  For  example,  the  act  of  standing  near 
the  kitchen  window  is  the  result  of  a  series  of  preceding 
actions  all  intended  to  bring  about  that  end.  In  order  to 
to  render  the  child  still  more  accurate  and  discriminating  in 
the  choice  of  w^ords,  he  should  at  least  once  during  the  study 
of  each  series  be  led  to  discover  and  appropriately  to  ex- 
press the  various  actions  leading  up  to  this  one  action  ex- 
pressed by  the  sentence. 

In  concluding  these  general  suggestions  concerning  the 
w^ork  of  any  series,  three  thoughts  are  worthy  of  iteration  : 

1.  in  considering  any  action  to  be  expressed  by  a  series 
of  sentences,  the  teacher  is  to  view  the  act  as  returning  to 
itself.  It  is  probable  that  any  act  in  nature  or  in  human 
life,  viewed  in  its  entirety,  would  be  seen  to  be,  employing 
Hegel's  significant  term,  a  ''return  to  itself."  Work  of 
this  kind  will  accustom  the  child  to  this  view  of  nature. 

2.  Under  all  stages  of  work,  the  teacher  is  to  be  careful 
to  present  such  actions,  directions,  and  illustrations  as  are 
adapted  to  lead  the  pupil  to  think  : 

a.  The   object   or  meaning   very  clearly   and    dis- 
tinctly. 

b.  The  expression. 

c.  The  correspondence  of  object  and  expression. 
This  three-fold  movement  of  thought  is  the  language  act. 


214  The  Problem  of  Method. 

It  is  the  method  in  language.  As  such  it  is  to  be  constantly 
before  the  teacher  in  all  language  work. 

As  before  indicated,  the  language  act  in  full,  is — thinking 
the  object ;  creating  the  purpose  ;  thinking  the  expression, 
and  thinking  the  correspondence  between  expression  on  the 
one  hand,  and  purpose  and  object  on  the  other.  Since, 
however,  the  special  purpose  renders  the  object  special,  the 
purpose  is  always  involved  in  the  object  expressed  b}^  lan- 
guage. For  this  reason,  the  language  act  is  here  spoken  of 
as  three-fold.  That  is,  as  thinking  the  object,  thinking  the 
expression,  and  thinking  their  correspondence. 

3.  It  is  very  important  that  the  sentences  of  any  given 
series  should  be  very  clearly  understood  as  to  their  mean- 
ing, and  made  completely  the  pupil's  own  orally,  before 
moving  out  into  the  field  of  the  derived  work. 

It  is  evident  that  the  series  of  sentences  expressing  any 
action,  constitutes  the  bare  frame- work  for  an  organized 
composition.  It  is  also  clear  that  this  composition  w^hen 
fully  organized  is  of  the  nature  of  narration.  It  is  further 
evident  that  the  individual  objects  to  be  expressed  in  de- 
scription, the  general  objects  to  be  expressed  in  exposition, 
and  the  relations  giving  rise  to  argumentation,  are  found  in 
the  material  of  each  action.  In  considering  the  work  under 
composition  : 

1.  Attention  will  first  be  turned  to  several  kinds  of  pre- 
liminary work. 

2.  Succeeding  this,  the  work  of  changing  the  series  of 
sentences  as  a  bare  structure,  into  a  piece  of  organized  dis- 
course, will  be  noted. 

3.  In  the  third  place  brief  reference  will  be  given  to  the 
more  systematic  work  under  description. 

Among  the  kinds  of  preliminary  work  are  the  following  : 

a.  Under  the  guidance  and  suggestion  of  the  teacher 

the  pupils  may  be  led  to  select  the  expressions  in  the  series 


Thk  Problkm  of  Method.  215 

of  sentences  known  as  subjective  language.  In  the  series  of 
sentences  concerning  the  tea-kettle  there  are  found  such  ex- 
pressions as  "I  know,"  "  I  think,"  "  I  find."  This  kind 
of  work  should  be  slight  at  first,  gradually  increasing  in  ex- 
actness and  importance  as  the  children  become  more  ad- 
vanced in  the  work. 

b.  Beginning  as  early,  perhaps,  as  in  the  third  grade, 
the  children  should  be  led  to  consider  the  Jigiirative  lan- 
guage based  upon  the  series  of  sentences  studied  in  the 
second  grade,  and  also  tliat  based  upon  those  studied  in  the 
third  grade.  This  figurative  language  is  based  upon  the 
separate  words  in  the  sentences,  and  also  upon  the  central 
thought  pervading  the  entire  action.  Some  of  the  figura- 
tive expressions  to  be  noted  as  arising  from  the  series  of 
sentences  expressing  the  action  of  filling  the  tea-kettle,  are 
the  following  : 

(1)   Based  on  separate  zvords  in  the  series  concern- 
ing the  tea-kettle, 

(a.)  In  the  sixth  sentence.  On  take.  '*  Take 
fast  hold  of  instruction."  Prov.  IV-13.  On  lid.  "The 
kettle  lid,  on  or  off,  and  the  pumper,  give  a  very  good  pic- 
ture of  modern  theory  and  practice."  Thring's  Theory 
and  Practice  of  Teaching.     Etc. 

(b.)  In  the  eighth  sentence.  On  continue. 
* '  If  ye  continue  in  my  word  then  are  ye  my  disciples  in- 
deed." 

On  hand.      * '  He  was  always  reckoned  a  lively  hand  at  a 
simile,"  etc. 

(c. )  In  the  seventeenth  sentence.  On  ivalk. 
*'  Oh  !  for  a  closer  walk  with  God,"  etc. 

(d.)  In  the  eighteenth  sentence.  On  empty. 
"  I  shall  find  you  empty  of  that  fault."  "  Pleased  in  the 
silent  shade  with  empty  praise."      On  zuater.     "  Remember- 


216  Thk  Probi^km  of  Method. 

ing  he  had  passed  over  a  small  water,  a  poor  scholar  when 
first  coming  to  the  university,  he  kneeled."     Etc. 

(2)   Based    on   the  pervadmg   thought^    in    the 
series  concerning  the  tea-kettle. 

The  main  thought  in  this  series  may  be  duty.  This  mental 
attribute  may  be  imaged  as  a  person.  It  is  so  imaged  in 
the  following  : 

"So  nigh  is  grandeur  to  our  dust, 

So  near  is  God  to  man  ; 
When  duty  whispers  *Lo,  thou  must !' 

The  youth  replies  'I  can.'  " 

Carefulness  may  be  viewed  as  that  with  which  one  is 
mainly  impressed  in  studying  all  the  various  phases  of  the 
action.  An  analogy  may  be  discovered  between  this  trait 
and  a  rampart. 

Carefulness,  in  the  image  of  the  rampart,  ma}^  then  be 
spoken  of  in  a  series  of  sentences. 

c.  Work  with  isolated  seyitences.  This  work  does  not 
always  use  the  sentence  in  the  exact  form  in  which  it  ap- 
pears in  the  series.  The  aim  of  the  work  is  to  make  the 
child  more  familiar  with  the  exact  significance  of  words  and 
with  the  properties  they  possess,  due  to  the  expression  of 
their  meaning.  The  different  steps  in  this  work  are  here- 
with noted : 

(1.)  The  sentence  is  changed  into  the  form  that 
will  best  lead  the  child  to  determine  the  significance  of  the 
words  from  their  connection  in  the  sentence  only.  For  ex- 
ample, if  the  first  sentence  in  the  series  embodying  the 
action  of  filling  the  tea-kettle  is  used,  instead  of  using  it  as 
it  is,  the  teacher  may  place  it  upon  the  board  modified  as  to 
the  subject,  thus  :  "It  is  standing  near  the  kitchen  win- 
dow." 

(2)  The  child  is  then  required  to  image  an  ap- 
propriate environment  for  the  actor  and  the  action.     This 


Thk  Problem  of  Method.  217 

is  to  be  set  forth  in  the  form  of  a  story,  and  written  upon 
slate  or  paper.  One  part  of  the  story  is  to  be  the  sentence 
that  was  placed  upon  the  board.  These  stories  are  then  to 
be  read,  and,  through  the  suggestion  of  the  teacher  and 
other  pupils,  to  be  modified,  condensed,  given  greater  unity, 
etc.  One  of  the  pupils  might  present  some  such  story  as  the 
following : 

"  Yesterday  my  mother  was  shopping.  In  passing  one 
of  the  dry  goods  stores  she  saw  a  beautiful  doll  in  the 
window.  She  bought  it  for  me.  I  was  very  much  de- 
lighted with  it.  I  have  been  playing  with  it  nearly  all 
morning.  I  am  now  through  playing  with  it  until  after 
dinner.  It  is  standing  near  the  kitchen  whidow.  This  is  not 
a  good  place  for  it.     I  must  take  it  into  the  sitting  room." 

Another  might  image  a  different  environment,  and  give 
expression  to  it  in  a  different  stor}^,  thus  : 

' '  This  morning  I  found  a  young  bird  under  the  apple 
tree.  It  was  too  young  to  fly.  It  must  have  fallen  out  of 
the  nest.  The  rain  had  been  falling  for  more  than  an  hour, 
and  the  little  bird  was  very  wet.  I  brought  into  the  kitchen 
and  placed  it  under  the  stove.  The  air  was  warm  there 
and  it  soon  became  dry.  After  a  while  it  began  to  walk  a 
very  little.  I  then  took  it  in  my  hand  and  put  it  on  the  shelf. 
//  is  standing  near  the  kitchen  ivijidoiv. ' ' 

No  doubt  the  stories  as  first  presented  upon  the  slates 
would  be  much  more  crude  in  form  than  these,  and  much 
more  fragmentary.  They  would  likewise  have  much  less 
unity. 

(3)  On  the  basis  of  the  various  stories  the  pupil 
should  be  led  to  see  the  significance  of  the  different  words. 
For  example,  it  would  be  shown  him  that  the  word  "it" 
might  mean  a  doll,  a  bird,  etc. 

(4)  The  children  should  then  be  led  to  notice  what 
may  be  called  the  properties  of  the  word  ;  that  is,  they  should 


218  The  Problem  of  Method. 

be  shown  that  the  word  *'  it "  means  but  one  object  ;  that  it 
means  the  object  spoken  of ;  that  it  means  the  object  per- 
forming the  action,  etc.  Similar  work  should  be  taken  with 
the  word  * '  window ' ' ,  and  with  the  other  words  of  the  sen- 
tence.* 

d.  A  fourth  kind  of  preliminary  work  is  that  in  which 
the  children  substitute  for  any  given  expression  other  ex- 
pressions having  substantially,  though  not  exactly,  the  same 
meaning,  and  then  decide  upon  the  relative  appropriateness 
of  the  different  expressions.  This  work  in  substitution 
should  begin  with  the  verb,  then  pass  to  the  subject,  and 
finally  to  the  predicate.  Thus  in  the  first  sentence  the 
children  might  substitute  for  * '  am  standing ' '  the  word 
"  stand"  ;  for  "  I  ",  the  expression,  ''  the  one  who  is  speak- 
ing "  ;  for  *'near",  "by"  or  "at",  etc. 
In  each  case  the  relative  fitness  of  the  different  expres- 
sions is  to  be  carefully  considered.  The  w^ork  is  important, 
because  in  an  elementary  way  it  both  makes  a  transition  to 
rhetoric  and  lays  the  basis  for  an  intelligent  discussion  of  the 
different  elements  and  words  in  the  sentence,  when  in  later 
years  scientific  grammar  is  entered  upon.  One  great  diffi- 
culty that  the  pupil  encounters  in  determining  the  force 
of  the  various  expressions  in  a  sentence,  is  his  inability  to 
image  corresponding  expressions  for  the  expression  under 
consideration. 

e.  The  four  kinds  of  work  indicated  grow  im- 
mediately out  of  the  series  of  sentences.  The  fifth  kind, 
now  to  be  considered,  changes  from  the  series  of  sentences 
constructed  by  the  pupils,  to  some  finished  selection  of  dis- 
course. This  finished  selection  is  examined  in  order  to 
find,  in  the  first  place,  what  may  be  termed  the  embodied 
series  of  actions,  and  the  expression  for  it ;  and  in  the  sec- 
ond  place,    to  discover  the    connective,    iterative    and  ex- 


See  work  on  Isolated  Sentence  in  Inland  Educator,  Vol.  Ill,  Jan.,  1897,  p.  298. 


The  Problem  of  Method.  219 

planatory  sentences,  the  rhetorical  features  of  the  various 
sentences,  and  whatever  else  is  involved  in  transmuting  a 
bare  succession  of  sentences,  exhibiting  a  few  successive 
actions,  into  an  organized,  finished  selection  in  discourse. 
The  following  furnish  material  suitable  to  the  explanation  of 
the  work  in  question  : 

HOW  A  PRESIDENT  IS  MADE. 

Despite  our  boasted  education  as  a  people,  and  in  curious 
contrast  to  the  tremendous  interest  we  take  in  elections,  it 
is  doubtful  if  one  voter  out  of  ten  can  accurately  describe 
the  process  by  which  a  President  and  Vice  President  are 
made. 

Commencing  with  the  choice  of  electors  oji  the  first  Tuesday 
after  the  first  Monday  in  November  of  presidential  years ^  the 
next  step  is  the  meeting  of  these  electors  at  their  several  State 
capitals  on  the  second  Monday  in  famiary  following  the  elec- 
tion. An  act  of  Congress  requires  the  electors  of  all  the 
States  to  meet  on  the  same  day.  At  this  meeting  each  elector 
casts  his  ballot  for  President  ajid  Vice  Presiderit.  He  is  at 
perfect  liberty  to  vote  for  whomsoever  he  chooses,  but  in 
testimony  to  the  high  sense  of  honor  which  pervades  the 
American  people  it  may  be  said  that  since  the  formation  of 
the  government  no  elector  has  failed  to  vote  for  the  candi- 
date for  whom  he  was  elected.  After  the  votes  have  been 
cast  they  are  sealed  up  and  entrusted  to  one  of  the  electors,  zvho 
is  designated  by  his  fellows  for  the  purpose,  and  by  him  are  con- 
veyed to  Washingto7i  and  delivered  over.  These  sealed  ballots 
are  directed  to  the  President  of  the  Senate,  zvho  opens  them  '  in 
the  presence  of  the  House  and  Senate  on  the  second  Wed?iesday 
of  the  Jollowiyig  February,  this  joint  session  being  required 
by  law.  If  it  is  found  that  any  candidate  for  President  has 
received  a  majority  of  the  entire  electoral  vote  he  is  formally  de- 
clared elected,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  Vice  President ;  but 


220  Thk  Problem  of  Method. 

if  no  07ie  has  received  a  7najority  for  either  of  these  offices  the 
joint  session  dissolves  and  the  House  proceeds  to  elect  a  Presiderit 
and  the  Senate  a  Vice  President, 

In  voting  for  President  the  House  is  restricted  to  the  three 
men  who  received  the  highest  votes  in  the  Electoral  College. 
In  the  House  each  State  is  entitled  to  one  vote.  How  this 
vote  shall  be  cast  is  determined  by  a  majority  of  the  Con- 
gressmen from  each  State.  It  makes  no  difference  how  the 
State  may  have  voted  upon  electors,  a  majority  of  the  Con- 
gressmen may  determine  how  it  shall  vote  when  the  presi- 
dential election  is  thrown  into  the  House.  To  elect,  a  ma- 
jority of  the  entire  number  of  States  is  required.  The  same 
process  is  had  in  the  Senate,  with  the  exception  that  each 
Senator  has  a  vote  and  only  the  two  highest  voted  for  in  the 
Electoral  College  may  be  selected  from.  In  case  the  House 
should  get  iyito  a  deadlock  ivhich  should  last  beyo7id  the  ^th  of  the 
following  March,  the  Vice  President  chosen  by  the  Seriate  would 
assume  the  presidential  chair  on  that  date,  thus  doing  away 
with  the  rule  so  prevalent  in  political  affairs  that  an  officer 
holds  until  his  successor  is'  elected  and  qualified.  The  old 
President  must  step  out,  whatever  may  be  the  fate  of  his  pre- 
sumed successor. 

-  The  Constitution  did  not  seem  to  provide  the  means  of 
presidential  succession  which  might  be  demanded  under  cer- 
tain emergencies,  and  so  the  Forty-7ii7ith  Co?igress  passed  a 
bill  fixing  this  succession  as  follows,  after  reciting  the  death, 
resignation  or  disability  of  both  the  President  and  Vice  Pres- 
ident :  Secretar}^  of  State,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  Secre- 
tary of  War,  Attorney-general,  Postmaster- general.  Secre- 
tary of  the  Navy  and  Secretary  of  the  Interior.  It  is  pro- 
vided, hoivever,  that  before  either  of  these  may  as  stun  e  the  pres- 
idejicy  he  m^ust  first  have  been  recognized  by  the  Senate  as  a 
Cabinet  officer  and  possess  in  himself  the  constitutio?ial  require- 
7nents  of  a  P'^'eside7it. 


The  Problem  of  Method.  22  1 

gold  lettering. 

The  sign  letterer  who  is  putting  a  gold  sign  on  a  window, 
paints  the  letters  upon  the  outside  first,  but  these  letters  are 
only  for  a  guide — the  gold  is  put  upon  the  inside  of  the 
glass.  The  gold  leaf  is  so  thin  and  light  that  the  faintest 
breath  would  be  enough  to  blow  it  away — it  is  carried  in  the 
familiar  little  books. 

The  letterer  brushes  the  inner  side  of  the  glass,  back  of 
the  lettering  painted  upon  the  outside,  with  a  brush  dipped 
in  water  containing  a  trace  of  mucilage.  Then  with  a  wide 
and  ver}^  thin  camel's  hair  brush,  which  he  first  brushes 
lightly  back  and  forth  once  or  twice  upon  the  back  of  his 
head,  or  perhaps  upon  his  coat,  to  dry  it  if  it  needs  drying, 
and  slightly  to  electrify  it,  he  lifts  from  the  book  a  section  of 
gold  leaf  sufficient  to  cover  a  section  of  the  letter  and  places 
it  on  the  glass.  He  repeats  these  operations  until  the  glass 
back  of  the  letter  painted  on  the  front  is  covered  with  the 
leaf.  It  may  require  three  or  four  sections,  such  as  can  be 
picked  up  with  the  brush  to  cover  the  letter,  or  perhaps 
more,  depending  on  its  size  and  shape.  When  he  has  com- 
pleted the  application  of  the  leaf  to  one  letter  he  dampens 
the  back  of  the  next  and  proceeds  with  that  in  the  same 
manner,  and  so  on  until  the  letters  are  all  backed  with  the 
gold  leaf. 

Thus  applied  the  gold  leaf  overlaps  the  letters  more  or  less 
on  all  sides.  It  is  bright  in  color,  like  all  gold,  but  it  is  not 
shining  ;  it  is  burnished  by  rubbing  it  gently  on  the  back — 
of  course,  it  cannot  be  rubbed  on  the  face,  for  that  is  against 
the  glass — with  a  soft  cloth.  It  burnishes,  however,  on  the 
face  as  well  as  on  the  back.  Then  the  letters  are  backed. 
The  exact  shape  of  the  letter  is  painted  over  the  back  of  the 
gold  leaf  to  fix  and  protect  it ;  and  when  the  back  is  dry  the 
gold  leaf  projecting  beyond  the  outline  of  the  letter  is  brushed 
off.     It  is  not  sought  to  save  this  projecting  leaf ;  there  is  not 


222  The  Problkm  of  Method. 

enough  of  it  to  pay  for  the  labor  that  would  be  involved  in 
gathering  it  together.  Then  the  outside  lettering,  which  is 
done  with  paint  that  is  but  little  more  than  oil,  is  rubbed  off, 
and  the  lustrous  gold  lettering  is  revealed. 

THE  DARK   FOREST. 

In  the  midway  of  this  our  mortal  Hfe, 

I  found  me  in  a  gloomy  wood,  astray, 

Gone  from  the  path  direct :  and  e'en  to  tell 

It  were  no  easy  task,  how  savage  wild 

That  forest,  how  robust  and  rough  its  growth, 

Which  to  remember  only,  my  dismay 

Renews,  in  bitterness  not  far  from  death. 

Yet  to  discourse  of  what  there  good  befell, 

All  else  will  I  relate  discover'd  there. 

How  first  I  enter'd  it  I  scarce  can  say, 

Such  sleepy  dullness  in  that  instant  weigh'd 

My  senses  down,  when  the  true  path  I  left. 

But  when  a  mountain's  foot  I  reached,  where  clos'd 

The  valley,  that  had  pierce'd  my  heart  with  dread, 

I  look'd  aloft,  and  saw  his  shoulders  broad 

Already  vested  with  that  planet's  beam. 

Who  leads  all  wanderers  safe  through  every  way. 

—Dante's  Inferno,  Canto  /,  lines  1-16. 

ON  A   FEI.I.OW-PASSENGER  ASLEEP  ON  THE  TRAIN,  WITH  THE   POEMS 
OF  BION  AND  MOSCHUS  IN  HIS  HANDS. 

Wake,  wake  him  not ;  a  book  lies  in  his  hands. 
Bion  and  Moschus  live  within  his  dream. 
Tired  of  our  world  he  fares  in  other  lands. 
Wanders  with  these  beside  Ilyssus'  stream. 

Dull,  even  sweet,  the  rumble  of  the  train  ; 
'Tis  Circe  singing  near  her  golden  loom. 
No  garish  show  afflicts  his  charmed  brain  ; 
Demeter's  poppies  brighten  o'er  her  tomb. 

Now,  half  awake,  he  looks  on  star-lit  trees— 
Sees  the  white  huntress  in  her  eager  chase. 
Wake,  wake  him  not— upon  the  fragrant  breeze 
Let  horn  and  hound  announce  her  rapid  pace. 


The  Problem  of  Method.  223 

Unbaiiished  gods  roam  o'er  the  thymy  hills  ; 
Calm  shadows  sleep  upon  the  purple  grapes. 
Hid  are  the  naiads  near  the  star-gemmed  rills  ; 
Far  through  the  moonlight  wander  lovelorn  shapes. 

Grey  olives  shade  the  dancing  dryad's  smile  ; 
Flutes  pour  their  raptures  through  that  visioned  stream  ; 
Echoes  like  these  our  modern  cares  beguile — 
Soft-whispering  music  from  the  old  Greek's  dream. 

— Songs  of  Night  a7id  Day,  F.  W.  Gunsaulus. 
A.  C.  McClurg  &  Co. 

It  will  be  noted  that  two  of  the  selections  are  prose,  ex- 
pressing mere  facts  ;  and  that  the  two  others  are  poetry, 
setting  forth  idealization. 

In  order  to  offer  an  explanation  of  the  work,  the  selection 
relating  to  the  election  of  President  and  Vice-President  is 
taken.  The  other  selections  could  be  treated  in  a  similar 
manner. 

In  dealing  with  a  selection  in  organized  discourse,  the 
first  work  is  to  discover  the  embodied  series  of  actions.  This 
is  shown,  substantially,  in  the  article  concerning  the  election 
of  President,  by  means  of  italics. 

The  second  work  is  to  construct  the  series  of  sente^ices  ex- 
pressing, the  elements  of  the  action.  In  the  given  case  these 
ma}^  appear  somewhat  as  follows  : 

1.  On  the  first  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  No- 
vember, in  Presidential  years,  the  qualified  voters  of  each 
state  choose  the  electors  for  that  state. 

2.  The  electors  meet  at  their  several  state  capitals  on  the 
second  Monday  in  January  after  the  election. 

3.  At  this  meeting  each  elector  casts  his  ballot  for  Presi- 
dent and  Vice-President. 

4.  The  electors  then  seal  up  the  ballots. 

5.  They  direct  them  to  the  President  of  the  Senate, 
Washington,  D.  C. 


224  The  Problem  of  Method. 

6.  They  elect  a  messenger,  usually  one  of  their  own 
members. 

7.  The  messenger  carries  the  sealed  ballots  to  Washing- 
ton. 

8.  He  delivers  them  to  the  President  of  the  Senate. 

9.  On  the  second  Wednesday  of  the  first  February  after 
the  election,  the  Senate  and  the  House  of  Representatives 
convene  in  joint  session. 

10.  The  President  of  the  Senate  opens  the  ballots  in  the 
presence  of  both  Houses. 

11.  It  may  be  found  that  one  candidate  for  the  Presi- 
dency has  received  a  majority  of  the  entire  electoral  vote. 

12.  In  that  case  he  is  formally  declared  elected  to  the 
Presidency. 

13.  It  may  also  appear  that  one  candidate  for  the  Vice- 
Presidency  has  received  a  majority  of  the  ballots. 

14.  He  is  then  formally  declared  to  be  elected  to  the 
Vice-Presidency. 

15.  It  may,  however,  be  found  that  no  one  has  received 
a  majority  of  the  electoral  votes  for  the  Presidency. 

16.  It  may  likewise  appear  that  no  one  has  received  a 
majority  of  the  votes  for  the  Vice-Presidency. 

17.  The  joint  session  in  such  case  dissolves. 

18.  The  Senate  proceeds  to  elect  a  Vice-President. 

19.  The  House  enters  upon  the  election  of  a  President. 

20.  It  may  be  that  the  House  fails  to  elect  the  President 
before  the  4th  of  the  following  March. 

21.  The  Vice-President  chosen  by  the  Senate,  thereupon 
assumes  the  Presidential  chair. 

22.  It  is  possible  that  both  the  Presidency  and  the  Vice- 
Presidency  may  become  vacant  by  means  of  death,  resigna- 
tion or  disability. 

23.  The  forty-ninth  Congress  fixed  the  succession  in 
such  case. 


The  Problem  of  Method.  225 

24  The  act  of  the  forty-ninth  Congress  established  the 
following  succession  :  Secretary  of  State  ;  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  ;  Secretary  of  War ;  Attorney  General  ;  Post 
Master  General  ;  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  and  Secretary  of 
the  Interior. 

25.  The  act  provides  that  the  one  who  becomes  Presi- 
dent in  compliance  with  this  law  must  have  been  recognized 
by  the  Senate  as  a  Cabinet  Officer. 

26.  It  further  ordains  that  he  must  possess  the  constitu- 
tional requirements  for  the  Presidency. 

The  third  kind  of  work  is  selecting  the  words  that  express 
the  central  action  in  each  sentence. 

The  fourth  kind  of  work  is  the  reconstruction  of  the  sen- 
tences on  the  basis  of  the  verbs,  as,  for  example,  on  the  verb 
of  the  first  sentence,  choose 

(Who,)  voters  choose. 

(More  definite,)  qualified  voters  choose. 

(Still  more  definite,)  the  qualified  voters  choose. 

(Fully  definite,)  the  qualified  voters  in  each  state  choose. 

(What,)  choose  electors. 

(More  definite,)  choose  the  electors. 

(Fully  definite,)  choose  the  electors  for  that  state. 

(When — year,)  choose  the  electors  for  that  state  in  Presi- 
dential years. 

(When — month,)  choose  the  electors  for  that  state  in 
Presidential  years  in  November. 

(When — day,)  choose  the  electors  for  that  state  in  Presi- 
dential years  in  November,  on  the  first  Tuesday  after  the 
first  Monday. 

The  fifth  kind  of  work  is  the  further  organizatio?i  of  the 
se7itence,  produced  by  deciding  upon  the  order  of  the  various 
expressions.  This  may  throw  the  last  expression  given 
above,  showing  the  day  on  which  the  election  is  to  occur,  so 
as  to  bring  it  first  in  the  organized  sentence.     A  high  de- 


226  The  Problem  of  Method. 

gree  of  skill  in  language  and  power  to  construct  it,  may  arise 
from  a  consideration  of  the  various  advantages  accruing 
from  the  different  positions  of  the  various  expressions. 

The  sixth  kind  of  work  is  an  examination  of  the  language 
acconipa7iying  the  expressions  revealing  the  series  of  actions. 
For  example,  study  will  reveal  that  the  first  sentence  is  a 
connective  sentence,  in  that  it  connects  ideas  of  our  educa- 
tion and  ideas  concerning  our  interest  in  elections  (both  sub- 
jects being  assumed  to  be  present  in  the  mind  of  the  reader,) 
with  our  ignorance  of  the  process  by  which  a  President  and 
Vice  President  are  made.  This  first  sentence  is  also  explan- 
atory, its  purpose  being  to  reveal  why  the  writer  presents  his 
thoughts  concerning  the  process  of  electing  the  President 
and  Vice  President.  In  the  second  sentence  the  expressions 
' '  commencing  with  ' '  and  ' '  the  next  step  ' '  are  connective. 
A  sentence  may  be  iterative,  in  that  it  may  present  activi- 
ties a  second  time,  etc.  From  this  it  will  be  observed  that 
the  main  kinds  of  sentences  required  in  order  to  change  the 
mere  series  of  sentences  into  organized  discourse  are  three  : 

Connective  sentences. 

Iterative  sentences. 

Explanatory  sentences. 

In  connection  with  each  separate  sentence,  and  also  with 
the  sentences  expressing  the  series  of  actions,  certain  rhet- 
orical features  are  always  involved  in  organized  discourse. 
These  are  shown  in  : 

Arrangement. 

Employment  of  subjective  sentences. 

Employment  of  figurative  expressions  including  both 
figures  of  speech  and  figures  of  thought. 

A  rhetorical  feature  produced  by  the  arrangement  is 
shown  in  beginning  the  first  sentence  with  ' '  Despite  our 
boasted  education,  etc.",  instead  of  beginning  it  with 
"  One  voter  out  of  ten,  etc."  Among  the  subjective  ex- 
pressions are,  "  The  interest  we  take  "  ;   "  It  is  doubtful  ". 


The  Problem  of  Method.  227 

Among  the  figurative  expressions  are,  "  Tlie  tremendous 
interest  we  take  "  ;  "  The  next  step  "  ;  * '  High  sense  of 
honor"  ;  "  Get  into  a  dead-lock"  ;  ''An  officer  holds"  ; 
' '  Must  step  out " .  It  will  be  noted  that  many  of  the  figura- 
tive expressions  are  also  subjective  expressions.  In  the  ex- 
pression, *'  The  House  proceeds  to  elect  a  President  and  the 
Senate  a  Vice  President  ",  a  figure  of  speech  is  found.  One 
is  also  found  in  the  enumeration  of  the  members  of  the  Cab- 
inet, indicating  their  order  of  succeeding  to  the  Presidenc^^ 
When  these  rhetorical  features  have  been  discovered,  it  is 
important  that  the  pupils  be  led  to  consider  their  effect. 

This  finishes  the  treatment  of  the  selection  of  organized 
discourse.  Equipped  with  the  new  power  arising  from  such 
work,  the  pupil  is  now  able  to  turn  to  any  one  of  the  bare 
series  he  has  previously  constructed,  and  transform  it  into 
organized  discourse.  In  doing  this  attention  should  be  given 
to  several  things  : 

1.  The  order  of  the  different  expressions  in  any  given 
sentence  should  be  noted,  and  the  advantage  of  any  change 
brought  out.  For  example,  the  pupils  may  be  led  to  com- 
pare the  following  in  reference  to  the  first  sentence  in  the 
series  concerning  the  kettle  :  ' '  I  am  standing  near  the 
kitchen  window,"  * '  Near  the  kitchen  window,  I  am  stand- 
ing." "  Standing  near  the  kitchen  window,  am  I."  Under 
order  should  be  noted  in  the  second  case,  the  order  of  the 
successive  sentences. 

2.  The  work  succeeding  the  consideration  of  order  is  an 
examination  as  to  the  combinations  that  may  be  made.  These 
combinations  might  appear  as  follows  :  "I  am  standing 
near  the  kitchen  window,  looking  out  of  it "  "I  know 
the  tea  kettle  is  empty,  and  yet  I  think  of  it  as  filled  ".  **  I 
then  go  to  the  stove  and  take  hold  of  the  knob  on  the  lid  of 
the  tea  kettle,  etc." 

3.  The  third  kind  of  work  is  what  may  be  called  the 
elaboration  of  the  series.     It  consists  in  the  appropriate  em- 


228  The  Probi^em  of  Method. 

ploymeut  of  connective  sentences,  iterative  sentences,  sub- 
jective sentences,  explanatory  sentences,  and  the  use  of 
various  rhetorical  features,  such  as  transposition,  figures  of 
thought,  etc.  The  following,  prepared  by  students,  may 
furnish  sufficient  illustration  of  this  elaboration  of  the  bare 
series  ot  sentences  : 

a.  We  can  realize  how  much  is  to  be  done  before 
our  end  is  accomplished  when  we  want  to  build  a  house,  ob- 
tain a  copy-right,  or  receive  a  degree  at  college,  but  how 
little  do  we  realize  the  many,  many  little  acts  that  must  be 
performed  before  we  have  accomplished  one,  even  one  of 
the  least,  of  the  acts  in  the  sphere  of  the  family,  as  for  ex- 
ample, that  of  filling  the  tea-kettle.  I  will  here  call  atten- 
tion to  one  set  of  conditions  under  which  this  act  once  oc- 
curred:  The  cook,  while  waiting  for  her  mistress,  stood 
near  the  kitchen  window  w^atching  the  little  birds  bathing 
in  the  puddles  of  water  which  remained  after  a  hard  morn- 
ing shower.  While  standing  there  she  was  reminded  of  the 
tea-kettle  she  had  left  on  the  stove  almost  empty.  She  im- 
mediately imaged  it  as  filled,  and  walked  to  the  stove  to 
remove  the  lid  from  the  steaming  kettle.  She  held  the  lid 
in  one  hand  while  she  walked  to  the  bucket  of  water  which 
was  on  the  table.  She  reached  for  the  dipper  which  hung 
in  the  usual  place  on  a  nail  just  above  the  bucket.  She 
took  hold  of  the  dipper  near  the  bowl,  so  that  she  would  be 
less  apt  to  spill  the  w^ater,  and  filled  it  with  water.  Hav- 
ing filled  the  dipper  she  returned  to  the  stove  to  empty  the 
water  into  the  kettle.  She  repeated  this  action  three 
times,  thinking  the  kettle  would  then  be  sufficiently  filled. 
And  so  it  was.  Then  she  replaced  the  lid  on  the  tea-kettle, 
and  hung  the  dipper  in  its  usual  place,  for  she  w^as  always 
particular  that  things  should  be  kept  in  their  proper  places. 
After  she  had  completed  this  she  returned  to  the  window 
and  coniinued  watching  the  little  birds,  for  her  mistress 
had  not  returned  from  market. 


The  Problem  of  Method.  229 

b.  It  is  a  cold  December  day  and  Mary  is  standing 
near  the  kitchen  window,  looking  out  upon  a  charming 
snow  scene.  She  thinks  that  the  little  snow-covered  fir  tree 
on  the  hill  lacks  only  candles  to  complete  it,  and  she  also 
thinks  of  her  papa  and  mamma,  who  have  gone  to  town  on 
a  mysterious  errand. 

Her  face  wears  a  bright  expression,  for  she  remembers 
her  mother's  parting  words,  "  I  feel  that  I  can  trust  you, 
Mary,  to  keep  the  fire  bright  and  the  kettle  boiling." 

This  thought  reminds  her  that  the  tea. kettle  is  probably 
empty  and  must  be  filled  at  once.  So  she  goes  to  the  stove, 
and  taking  hold  of  the  knob,  lifts  the  lid  from  the  tea-ket- 
tle. Still  holding  it  in  her  left  hand,  she  passes  to  the 
water-bucket  and  removes  the  dipper  from  its  accustomed 
nail  near  b}^ 

Now,  Mary  is  such  a  small  girl  that  it  is  not  easy  for  her 
to  dip  water  without  spilling  it,  so  she  grasps  the  handle 
quite  near  the  bowl,  to  prevent  such  an  accident.  She  fills 
her  dipper,  and  returning  to  the  s^ove,  very  carefully  pours 
its  contents  into  the  tea-kettle.  It  takes  three  dipper-fulls, 
so  that  her  chubby  arms  quite  ache  by  the  time  she  has 
iSnished. 

She  replaces  the  lid,  hangs  up  the  dipper,  and  returning 
to  the  window,  looks  again  at  the  fir  tree  which  is  soon  to 
bear  candles,  and  waits  patiently  for  the  return  of  her  papa 
and  mamma. 

c.  On  a  bright  and  sunny  day  I  stand  near  the 
kitchen  wdndow,  watching  some  birds  as  they  pick  up  the 
crumbs.  As  I  do  this,  the  clock  gives  warning  of  the  ap- 
proaching dinner  hour.  I  know  that  the  tea-kettle  is  empty 
and  at  once  think  of  it  as  being  full.  I  walk  to  the  stove 
and  remove  the  tea-kettle  lid.  As  I  hold  it  in  my  hand  I 
walk  to  the  water-bucket,  and  finding  the  dipper  hanging 
on  a  nail  aboVe  the  bucket,  I  take  hold  of  the  dipper-han- 
dle close  to  the  bowl  in  order  to  carry  the  water  more  easily. 


230  The  Problem  of  Method. 

I  take  one  dipper-full  and  empty  it  into  the  tea-kettle.  I 
pour  in  two  more  dipper-fulls  and  then  the  tea-kettle  is 
full.  Placing  the  lid  on  the  tea-kettle  so  that  the  water 
will  boil  sooner,  I  hang  the  dipper  in  place  again.  I  resume 
my  position  at  the  window  and  again  look  out. 

d.  It  was  a  clear,  cold  day  in  November,  and  the 
bright  fire  in  Farmer  Jones'  comfortable  kitchen  sent  out  a 
cheerful  glow.  Mrs.  Jones  hurried  to  and  fro,  for  a  great 
many  things  had  to  be  done  on  this  particular  morning. 
Tomorrow  would  be  Thanksgiving  and  a  number  of  guests 
were  expected.  The  farmer  had  gone  into  the  village  quite 
early  to  purchase  groceries,  and  now  Mrs.  Jones  was  ex- 
pecting to  hear  the  sound  of  old  Doll's  feet  on  the  hard 
frozen  road  at  any  minute,  for  she  must  have  those  things 
to  finish  her  baking.  She  left  the  table,  where  she  was  at 
work,  and  was  standing  near  the  window  looking  out.  Just 
then  she  heard  a  queer,  sizzing  noise,  and  remembered  that 
the  tea-kettle  was  empty.  But  it  must  be  filled,  for  she 
would  need  hot  water  to  scald  the  turkey.  So  she  hurried 
to  the  stove,  took  hold  of  the  lid  of  the  tea-kettle  and  re- 
moved it.  Holding  it  in  her  hand,  she  walked  to  the 
water-bucket  which  stood  on  the  table.  Mrs.  Jones  was  a 
very  neat  housekeeper  and  always  kept  things  in  their 
proper  places.  Just  back  of  the  bucket  hung  the  dipper  on 
a  nail.  She  took  it  down,  and  filling  it  with  water,  poured 
the  contents  into  the  tea-kettle,  all  the  while  grasping  the 
handle  near  the  bowl,  for  she  was  so  afraid  of  spilling  the 
water  on  her  new  carpet.  This  she  did  three  times.  She 
then  put  the  lid  on  the  kettle  and  hung  the  dipper  in  its 
place.  Surely  by  this  time  Doll  must  be  in  sight,  so  she  re- 
turned to  the  window  and  again  looked  out.  Just  then  the 
horse's  feet  came  clattering  up  the  pike. 


INDEX. 


Page. 
Alienation 33,  35 

Abstract 33,  34,  36 

Abstraction 127 

Aphaeresis 144 

Apocope 144 

Asyndeton 144 

Association 146 

Synecdoche 146 

Metonymy      146 

Aspects 153 

Apperception 159 

Attribute 165 

Isolated 165 

Characteristic 9 

Art  Product 180 

Assignment 183,  184,  185 

Activity,  Concrete, 212 

Action,  Embodied  Series,  .  223,  225 

Composition 121 

Organizing  Principle  ....  121 

Scope,  The 121 

Divisions,  The 121 

Comparison 127,  145 

Simile 145 

Metaphor 145 

Personification 146 

Apostrophe 146 

Allegory      . 145 


Page. 

Contrast 146 

Expressed 146 

Antithesis   . 146 

Climax 146 

Implied 146 

Epigram      •.    .  146 

Interrogation 146 

Irony 146 

Conceiving 175,  176,  177 

Content 178 

Content,  Figures  of,    .    .    .  145,  146 

Concrete 26,  34 

Concept 114 

Coherence 141 

Devices 12,  151,  190,  193 

Special 151 

Divisions,  Relative  Importance 

of 19 

Discrimination 127 

Discourse 148 

Primary  Law      .......  148 

Secondary  Laws 148 

Distinction   .    .    .  135,  138,  143,  148 

Ellipsis    ...........  144 

Environment 137 

Analagous 182 

Epanalepsis 145 

Epizeuxis 145 


11 


Index. 


Page, 

Form 178 

Figures  of 144-,  145 

Function 178 

Generalization 99 

Genetic 121 


Hypothesis 


99 


Imagination 160,  174 

Mechanical 160 

Separative 160 

Creative 160 

Image ^ 178 

Immediacy 25,  ,26 

Introspective 157 

Interpretation 161,  162 

Induction      99 

Isolation 28 

Idea,  Dominant, 153 

Judgment 166 

Immediate 166 

Conditional 166 

Definitive 166 

Judging 177 

Language  Activity  .    .    .    .129,  175 

Language  Act  .    .    .    .211,  213,  214 

Language 

Interpretation 176 

Subjective 215 

Figurative 215 

Life,  Institutional 148 


Page. 
Limitation 154 

Limit,  Consciousness  of  .    .    .    .158 

Method,  5,  7,  10,  11,  14,  15,  16,  25, 

26,  34,  35,  36,  37,  38,  39,  112,  113 

The  fact  in  the  thing       ....  5 

The  law  in  the  mind 6 

The  method  in  both 6 

First  view  of 106,  114 

Second  view  of 107 

Third  view  of 108 

Province  of 20,  21,  22 

Objective 16,  18 

Subjective 19,  24 

Analytic,  Synthetic,  Inductive, 

Deductive 112,  113 

Inductive 173 

Scientific 117 

Psychologic 118 

In  a  Lesson 153 

In  Language .  215 

Mind,    Fundamental   Movement 
of 10 

Means 23 

Moral 156 

Mnemonic 160 

Memorization 127 

Memory 159,  160,  174 

Spontaneous  ....••..  159 

Voluntary 160 

Systematic 160 

Mental  Effects 21 

Organizing  Principle    .    .    .    .  8,  37 

Object 35,  108 

Onomatopoetic 141 


Index. 


Ill 


Page. 

Objectified     . 157 

Organizing 176 

Presentiment 31 

Plot 141 

Pleonasm 145 

Polysyndeton 145 

Principle 153 

Potentiality 154,  164 

Process    155-180 

Objectifying 155-157 

Subjectifying 157-180 

Presentation    .    .  158,  159,  174,  178 

Perception 159 

Premise 171 

Major 171 

Minor 171 

Particular,  The 182 

Purpose 188 

Of  Life 188 

Of  Lesson 188,  190 

Reasoning 128,  169,  177 

Deductive 128,  177 

Inductive 177 

Deduction 172 

Induction 170 

Identifying 177 

Identification 169 

Representation    .    .    .   159,  174,  178 

Memory 178 

Imagination 178 

Ratiocination 176 


Page- 

Steps 10,  186,  188 

Mental 19 

Specialist 13 

Scholarship 15,  16 

Province  of 24 

Scope 19 

Science 24 

Subject .    .    .  35,  108 

Subject- Object 36-127 

Subjective-Objective  .    .    .  156,  157 

Spontaneity 131 

Symbolic 136 

Synthesis 143 

Syncope 144 

Self-determination  ....  154,  191 

Stage,  Separative 157 

Sensation 158 

Subsumes 165 

Subject-matter     .    .    .  183,  184,  185 

Self-estrangement 190 

Sympathy 192 

Substitution 218 


Theory 

Truth,  Scientific 


99 
99 


Thought 162-174,  179 

Understanding 163,  179 

Apprehension 164^ 

Distinction 

Classification 1  64 


IV 


Index. 


Page. 

Identifiying 164 

Separating 164 

Unifying 164 

Apprehending 179 

Distinguishing 179 

Abstracting 179 

Discriminating 179 

Comparing 179 

Classifying 179 

Generalizing 179 

Analyzing  the  Object  into 

Cause  and  Effect  ...  179 
Discovering  Structural 

Idea  of  an  Object  .    .    .  179 

Ratiocination 164-180 

Conceiving 164-180 

Judging 164-180 

Reasoning 164-180 

.  Identifying 180 

Inductive .  180 

Deductive 180 


Page. 

Unity 27,  154 

Fused 27,  154 

Mediated 28 

Differentiated 36 

Undifferentiated 31 

Universal,  The 181 

Verification 99 

Visualization 140 

Will 34 

Objectified 34 

Work 148 

Constructive  ........  148 

Synthetic 148 

With  Isolated  Sentences    .    .  216 


GENERAL  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA— BERKELEY 

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Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


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